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INTRODUCTION TO RURAL
DEVELOPMENT
Dr. Dilip S. Patil
Unit Structure :
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Concept
1.3 Nature of rural development
1.4 Scope of rural development
1.5 Objectives of rural development
1.6 Importance of rural development
1.7 Programs for rural development
1.8 Summary
1.9 Self-study
1.0 OBJECTIVES
Can study Rural Development
Can understand the Concept of Rural Development
Can understand the Nature of Rural Development
Can understand the Objectives of Rural Development
Can understand the Importance of Rural development
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Developing nation like India has given more importance to
Rural Development. Rural economy has great impact on Indian
economy. Percentage of Poverty, Illiteracy and unemployment is
more in the rural areas. As a result economic developm ent gains
more importance in the rural development. Rural Development is a
process to develop the rural areas in the country. Rural
Development is an action oriented program, and also a social
science studying the rural community and their problems. Other
social scope (extent) is limited to a specific facet of social life, but
rural development’s social science deals with an extensive scope.munotes.in
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2Social, Political and Economic facets of rural development are
taken into consideration in this study.
Rural life h as gained importance in the Indian social lifestyle.
India is a country of villages. There are 6,27,000 villages in India.
Out of the total population of India 75% live in rural areas. Many
villages are very small. Some villages are situated far away from
the cities in the hilly areas or in deep valleys. Some villages are
situated in the desert areas, in the Himalayan hill ranges,
Seashores as per the geographical diversification. Villages in the
remote areas are separated from the main stream of villages a nd
cities. As a result the life in these remote rural areas is full of
hardships and also under -developed.
Even after 63 years of Independence this underdeveloped
rural society is forbidden from getting even the basic amenities. It is
very essential to pr ovide the basic amenities to this society. Rural
Development means providing drinking, education, health, housing
facilities, proper basic ingredients of food, etc. which are the day -to-
day basic needs. Villages are India’s soul. Rabindranath Tagore
has ri ghtly said, “ Preserving villages means preserving human
race.” According to Mahatma Gandhi -“destruction of villages is
destruction of India.” Therefore it is very essential to know the
potential of the natural resources, to search it and to develop it,
which is expected in Rural Development.
1.2 CONCEPT OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Even though a proper concept of rural development is not
found still some thinkers have randomly put forward few concepts
of rural development. But before you understand the concep to f
rural development it is very essential to understand the meaning of
these two words -Rural and Development.
Rural -The word ‘rural’ is associated with the rural community.
Geographical areas having specific distinguishing features is called
ar u r a l area. According to some sociologist village is the one which
is not a city. The person who cultivates land is called is a villager
and this villagers community where it lives is called a village. If in
an geographical area the main occupation and means of living of
the people is farming then that society is called a rural society. If in
a geographical area 50% or more than that people’s main
occupation or means of livelihood is farming then that community is
said to be a rural community. If in a geographica la r e am o r et h a n
50% of the population depend on farming that area is said to be a
rural area.munotes.in
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3Development -This word development is more often used in
economics. The word development with reference to rural
development includes three constituent parts which include -
Agricultural development, Economic development and Overall
development of the rural community. This are the three important
aspects of rural development. ‘Development’ means changing the
economic condition of the economically feeble communit y.
Rural Development: -
1.According to Robert McNamara -Giving stress on the
development of the weak or feeble rural community like small
farmers, landless farmers and rural artisans and an overall
development of the rural area is Rural Development.
2.According to Dr. Swaminath an-The process of developing the
weaker sections of the rural society and making them strong in
all aspects is rural development.
3.Chester Bolls say that -Rural development is not limited only to
agriculture but improving the standard of small scale i ndustries,
educational development, advanced communication, rural
electrification, rural health, population control centre and to give
encouragement to rural culture is rural development.
4. Rural population has to begin to lead a self dependent life,
providing technical and other facilities to the rural population for
its efforts and bringing change in oneself means rural
development.
5. Solving problems like poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, and
health of the rural areas by increasing their standard o fl i v i n g
and giving stress on overall development of the rural areas does
mean rural development.
6. Making proper and sufficient use of the available natural
resources to bring about a developmental change in the poorest
of the poor section of the rural society is rural development. It is
very clear from the above concepts that rural development is
nothing but bringing about a developmental change in the
financial status of the poorest section of the rural society. For
this programs like poverty eradicati on and employment
generation are to be undertaken. Along with this an effort taking
society to minimize the minimum needs has to be developed.
Rural life, Rural community, Rural areas and their problems and
to find a solution to it is very essential and al so study the rural
development process and to find new avenues for the
development and implement it by the rural society is expected.
Following things are to be included while explaining the rural
development programs extensively.munotes.in
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41.Fulfilling the m inimum needs. In this provision of pure drinking
water in each and every village, providing good quality food
grains at a reasonable price, providing shelter, rural
electrification, educational facilities, health facilities etc are to be
created.
2.Crea ting agro based industries at the village level, creating
basic facilities for this industries, providing transport,
communication and market facilities.
3.Creating employment opportunities at village level or in the
nearby areas and creating permanent productive capital.
4.Creating primary educational facilities at village, hamlets,
providing secondary school at the central place in the village,
wherever possible providing junior colleges and improving the
educational standards of the rural society.
5.Providing library facilities, television sets agricultural extension
services for cultural development and social change.
6.Implementing programs to eradicate superstitious beliefs,
providing health facilities at free of cost or at subsidized rate,
creating health centers to increase capacity of the human
resources and make full use of this resource in the development
process.
7.Developing independency, cooperation and leadership qualities
and try to solve the problems themselves.
8.Developing network of roadways in the rural areas, developing
the kutcha roads into permanent pucca roads, developing
transport facilities and providing big market facility for the rural
agricultural produce in the cities.
9.Developing the available natural resou rces, and make use of
the dormant natural resource for economic development, and
reproducing the necessary ingredients.
10.Providing basic facilities and enough capital for developing
agriculture and allied agricultural activities and subsidiary
occupat ions.
Check your progress :
1)Explain the concept of rural development.munotes.in
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51.3 NATURE OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT
While clarifying the nature of rural development it is very
much essential to understand the sociological (social science)
structure a nd the process of rural development independently.
1.3.1 Rural Development a Social Science
1)Study of the rural community and their problems: -
Here a study of rural environment and the community living
in it is done. The social, economical, poli tical and cultural study is
taken into consideration in rural environment. We can see the
problems like poverty, illiteracy, superstitions, ill health, lack of
motivation, fatalist attitude, opposition to the changes to be brought
to change the lifestyle o r disinterest in changing themselves. An
explanation to the above issues is done in the study of social
sciences in rural development.
2)Idealistic Discussion
While studying the rural community and their problems what
measures are to be adopted is d iscussed in this issue. Measures
such as rural diversification, generating self employment for the
unemployed, active participation of the rural people at the grass -
root level planning through the medium of gram -sabha, awareness
generation through the volu ntary organizations, development of the
weaker sections of the society through cooperation are suggested.
Mahatma Gandhiji’s concept of Gram Swarajya and the concept of
Decentralization of the democracy the are the ideal concepts for
bringing about a chang e in the rural community. Guidance is given
in the social science of rural development to change the present
situation to an idealistic situation.
3)Scientific Attitude and Suggested Facets
Suggested facets are more important in the social sciences
of rural development because rural development is an action
oriented social science. Rural social science was put forward with
the objective to solve the problems of the rural community. That is
why study of programs whether they are governmental or non
governmental is done in this rural social science.
4)Interrelated Scientific Facets
Though rural development is a social science it deals with
the materialistic, humanistic, scientific attitude. Agriculture and rural
economy, genetical engineering and environmental science are the
different facets of this. It considers all the issues of this facet.munotes.in
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6Check your progress:
1)Write short note -Rural Development a social Science.
1.3.2 Rural Development a Process
Rural development is a n important process to bring about an
overall development and change in the rural community. Its nature
is as follows: -
People’s Agitation:
Community development program was started with the
objective of rural development. After few years it became a
people’s agitation a mass movement. As rural development is a
program of the people, by the people and for the people. In the
process of rural development rural community should have the
attitude of developing or bringing about a change in the society and
for bringing about this change there should be spontaneous and
active participation of the people. For this Balwantrai Mehta had put
forward the concept of Democratic decentralization and three -tier
Panchayat Raj system. As per his recommendation the three -tier
system of Panchayat raj came into existence. Voluntary
organizations also came forward. Co -operative movement made it
possible, for the development process to get mobility.
Extensive Objectives:
Objectives of rural development are extensive in natu re and
include all the facets of rural life. Agricultural development,
developing available water resources, Infrastructural development,
human resource development, conservation of natural resources
and its proper utility, economic development, social cha nge, etc
objectives have been put forward. To fulfill this objectives various
programs, schemes and projects have been undertaken. As a
result the objective of rural development have become of extensive
nature.
Processing Industries:
Developing agricult ural processing industries, motivating
industrialization in the rural areas, establishing industries based on
co-operation so that maximum benefit reaches the producer.
Developing Infrastructural Facilities:munotes.in
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7Providing transport and communication facilit ies, provision of
drinking water, rural electrification, bringing the level of education to
the highest, providing health facilities and creating favorable
conditions for the development of human resources.
Check your progress:
1)Rural development is an important process to bring about an
overall development. Explain?
1.4 SCOPE OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Area wise India is big country. Its area is 32,87,263 sq km.
Population of the country is more than 120 crores, but 70% resides
in the rural are as. The geographical condition is different
everywhere. There is vast diversity in the climate, rainfall, quality of
soil, natural resources, various occupations having in the rural
areas. The rural areas in different regions have different problems.
Many measures had been taken in the post independence period
but there was no solution to these problems. As a result rural
development has gained importance to solve the problems in the
rural areas. Therefore the scope of rural development is extensive.
This c an be understood from the following points.
To bring about a Change in the Rural Occupational Structure -
Agriculture is the main occupation in the rural areas. Out of
the total population 64.5% population is directly engaged in
farming. But the majority small farmers and marginal farmers use
traditional method of farming due to which they could not progress.
Due to unstable economic condition capital investment in the
agricultural sector was not possible .As a result agriculture
remained undeveloped. The refore provision of credit supply to the
agricultural sector, water facilities, provision of agricultural
implements and allied and subsidiary occupation is very important.
If the rural population is provided with some occupations they can
be a means to ge nerate regular income to the families. So we can
say the scope of rural development is extensive with the point of
view of rural occupations and industries.munotes.in
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8Basic Necessities -
To create favorable conditions for rural development it is
essential to pr ovide basic necessities in the rural areas. To develop
and provide the facilities like transport, communication,
unemployment, markets, electric supply, water supply the scope of
rural development has become extensive.
Industrial Development -
The occupa tion carried on in the rural areas, are of primary
sector in nature. The raw material is created from this. But the
processing industries on the raw material is maximum in the cities.
Therefore the benefits of the production is reached to the traders in
the cities due to which the economic condition in the rural areas is
not improved. Therefore there is a big chance that, processing on
raw material industries should be established in the rural areas
itself.
Social Development -
People from different cast e and religion reside in the rural
areas. Also many traditional, undesirable customs are seen in the
rural community. This results in the adverse effects on the progress
of the rural community. Rural community is scattered and there are
many problems in th e backward community staying in the remotest
areas. Development of this whole community and include them in
the development process is very essential. To solve the basic
problems and bring about a social development of this community
rural development scop eh a sb e c o m ee x t e n s i v e .
Developing Human Resource -
Total utilization of the available human resource is possible
only if rural human resource is utilized to its full capacity. For this
spread of education and provision of higher education is necessary.
To develop the skills in the human resource training facilities are to
be provided. Health facilities are essential to increase the efficiency
and to preserve the human resource. It is then only we can utilize
the human resource to its fullest in the deve lopment process.
Therefore there is an extensive scope in the rural human resource
development, which motivates the economic development.
Developing Natural Resources -
Natural resources are available in abundance in the rural
areas. As this natural re source is not utilized it is remaining in the
dormant state. To develop this natural resource capital is required
in large proportion so that it can be used for economic
development. To develop the factors like land, water, minerals,
animal resources, ocea n wealth in proper proportion and make its
use in economic development the scope of rural development has
to be extensive.munotes.in
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9Population Control -
The main obstacle in the rural development is the increasing
population at a faster rate. If the population i sn o tc o n t r o l l e d
development is not possible at any cost. Population control is an
important factor so the scope of rural has to be extensive.
Check your progress:
1)Explain the scope of rural development?
1.5 OBJECTIVES OF RURAL DEVELOPME NT
During the British period the self -sufficient villages were
ruined which gave rise to many problems. After the Independence
Indian government gave more stress on programs for developing
rural areas through planning. Before implementing the programs
and schemes for rural development some objectives were decided.
They are as follows:
1)Increasing the Agricultural Production -
Out of the total population 64.5% population directly
depends on agriculture. As majority population is engaged in
agriculture it is necessary to increase the agricultural production
through agricultural development. The main objective of rural
development is to increase the agricultural production by using new
technology i.e new techniques of production, providing agricultural
loan to increase per acre production.
2)Research and Training -
Establishing research centers, agricultural universities,
agricultural colleges for rural development. High yielding variety
seeds should be invented through research and that has to reach
the producers and also train them in the same, developing
agricultural extension services, allied and subsidiary occupations
are to be promoted, new technique and technology has to reach the
farmers and convince them to use the same.
3)Develop Agricultur al Processing Industries -
Raw material processing industries mostly are set up in the
urban areas, as a result the farmers have to sell the raw material at
a very low rate. The raw material is not sold at a desired andmunotes.in
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10reasonable rate. Which is again a r eason for the farmer’s low
standard of living. Therefore if the farmer has to be benefited then
the processing industries have to be set up in the rural areas than
the urban areas. This is also one of the objectives of rural
development.
4)Allied activi ties and Subsidiary occupations -
Out of the total land in the country 77% depends on irrigated
water supply. Therefore the unemployment persists for the
remaining 8 months other than the rainy season. Therefore the
objective of developing allied and sub sidiary occupations is taken
into consideration so that through this medium employment can be
generated.
5)Development of the weaker sections through Co -operation -
To unite the economically weaker sections of the rural
society. To stop the ill -treatmen t given to the small farmers,
marginal farmers, agricultural laborers and small traders by
establishing co -operative societies. This are the objectives to
provide the benefits of the new techniques of production to the
farmers through co -operation, to esta blish co -operative credit
societies to stop the exploitation of farmers from the moneylenders
and to make the weaker section of the rural society powerful
through co -operation.
6)Fulfilling the basic necessities of the rural community -
To create a favo rable climate to develop the human
resources by fulfilling the basic needs like food, clothing, shelter,
education, health, pure drinking water, rural electrification for the
overall development of the rural community.
7)Implementing self -employment programs -
Providing facilities like employment training for the rural
youths, providing financial assistance to the weaker sections of the
society, eradicating poverty by including the weaker sections in the
development pr ocess.
8)Creating awareness -
To create love and feel proud for the country, equality, unity,
fraternity and national integration in the minds of rural community.
Creating awareness among the rural community to keep away the
distinction between the ca ste, class, religion, region.
9)More stress on rural industrialization -
Minimizing the distance between the rural thinking and urban
thinking. To bring together the rural and urban culture.munotes.in
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1110)To raise the standard of living -
They should be provided with income generating sources
and to develop the household resources.
11)To remove the supernatural beliefs -
To remove the supernatural beliefs from the mind of the rural
community and de velop a scientific attitude. To keep away the rural
community from the evil or obnoxious traditions and cultures and
sow the seeds to develop themselves on their own.
12)Employment generating programs -
Start the employment generating programs at loc al level and
create productive assets (benefits) from it.
Check your progress :
1)Give the objectives of rural development?
1.6 IMPORTANCE OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT
It is very important to develop a scientific attitude to study
rural community in rural development. Through this medium it is
possible to study the problems in rural areas and measures can be
adopted to solve this problems. Mahatma Gandhi’s views are very
important with regards to rural development. India is a land of
villages and if this villages are not developed then rural
development is not possible till then we cannot say country is
developed. Out of the total geographical area 80% is rural area. It
means we cannot say the country is developed till and until the
maximum populat ion living in the maximum geographical area i.e
rural is developed. Indian constitution has adopted the objectives of
justice and equality. To achieve this objectives rural areas are to be
provided with the basic necessities like food, clothing, shelter,
education, and health facilities.
To remove the inequality between the economical condition
in the rural and urban areas rural development has to be given
priority. This is understood by the politicians and planning
commission. From the 6 th five year pla nr u r a ld e v e l o p m e n tw a s
given more importance and priority providing more monetary
benefits and rural development program was started on a widermunotes.in
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12scope. Which resulted in the mobility of rural development process.
But still all the rural community problems were not solved.
If and only if the rural areas become self dependent, then in
the real sense we can say rural development has taken place.
Rural development is important because it will help the rural people
to develop themselves and along with it count ries economical
status will get mobility
Check your progress:
1)Give the importance of rural development?
1.7 PROGRAMS OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT
After independence few important rural development
programs were implemented. As per changing situ ations the
programs implemented are as follows: -
1)Community development program -
Considering rural community as the centre point in 1952
community development program was started for an overall
development of this society. Projects like agricultural development,
developing a positive attitude in the rural areas, creating a
responsible and constructive leadership in rural development,
bringing development in the economic conditions of the people and
providing basic necessities in the rural areas and other such
programs were undertaken.
2)Sectoral (divisional) development program -
From the point of view of sectoral division these programs
were started. Keeping in mind the different problems in different
areas individual programs for different areas was started instead of
implementing a single program all over the country and throug h this
the problems in the rural areas were solved.
3)Community Development Program -
Different groups and categories residing in different areas
have different problems. To solve these problems independent
programs are to be implemented for different categories. Problems
of small farmers, marginal farmers, agricultural labourers, landless
labourers, educated unemployment, women and children or amunotes.in
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13group were different. So individual programs were set -up for each
category.
4)Employment Generation Progr ams -
Different types of unemployment persist in the form of
seasonal unemployment, unemployment, hidden unemployment, or
people are engaged in for few days then again they are
unemployed. To fulfill the basic needs of the rural population
employment has to be generated. For this many employment
generation programs had been implemented through which skilled
workers could be created.
5)Minimum Needs Program -
Minimum needs program is implemented keeping in view the
basic needs of the rural population. This program fulfilled the basic
needs like food, clothing, shelter, education, health, drinking water,
rural electrification, construction of roads, rehabilitation of the
unhygienic rural areas, and other needs and necessities were
included while implemen ting the program. It was an attempt to
provide the basic necessities.
5)Integrated Rural Development Program -
This program was implemented with the motive that the weaker
sections of the rural society can improve their economic conditions.
The weaker sections of the society were provided with financial
help so that along with the increase in agricultural production small
and cottage industries also were started. This proved very helpful in
eradicating poverty to a small extent.
Check your progress :
1)Give an account of different rural development programs
implemented.
1.8 SUMMARY
Compared to the urban area rural is vast because 70%
people live in villages. Rural area spreads from the hilly areas till
the sea shore areas all over the country. Different regions have
different problems. Due to belief in the traditional patterns rural
community has been deprived of the economic development. It ismunotes.in
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14for this reason aspects such as nature, scope, objectives,
importance and rural development p rograms have been studied
here. Understanding the various problems of the rural areas and try
to implement the programs accordingly.
India has given importance to rural development in its
economic progress. If villages are developed then in the true sen se
we can say India has developed. Before the British raj India villages
were self sufficient and independent. The administration of the
villages was in the hands of experienced village panchas. During
the British period the nature of self -sufficient villa ges in the country
came to an end as a result many problems came into existence.
After independence many rural development programs were
implemented. Specific objectives were decided -what is rural
development? Taking into consideration the nature, scope, and
other point objectives of rural development were put forward. It is
said that there is link between rural development and economic
development.
1.9 SELF -STUDY
1.What is rural development? Explain its nature.
2.Give the meaning of rural development a nd scope of rural
development.
3.Explain the concept of rural development and give its objectives.
4.What is the scope of rural development and give its importance?
5.Explain in short the different rural development programs .
References:
www.gov.nic.inHYPERLINK "http://www.gov.nic.in/"
www.slideshare.com
Mishra S. K. & Puri V. K., Himalaya Publishing House, New
Delhi, 2006 -“Development Issues of Indian Economics”.
Desai Vasant, Himalaya publishing house, Mumbai, 2005 -
“Rural Development in India -Past Present and Future”.
Rudra Dutt & K.P.m.Sundaram, S. Chand & Company, Delhi,
2000 -“Indian Economics”.
Rural India, Publication Division, Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting, GOI.
Kurukshetra, Publication Division, Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting, GOI.
munotes.in
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152
SCHEMES OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Dr. Dilip S. Patil
Unit Structure :
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Different poverty alleviation programs
2.3 Some other development schemes
2.4 District Rural Development Agency (DRDA)
2.5 Different schemes implemented previously were merged
with other schemes
2.6 Other Programs implemented by the ministry of India
2.7 Summary
2.8 Self-Study
2.0 OBJECTIVES
To remove poverty of the rural poor
To fill the widened gap between rich and poor
To study the welfare activities
To overcome the major threat to rural areas
To enhance the potentialities of rural youths
To boost the confidence of rural poor
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The main objective of rural development has been to remove
poverty of the people and fill the widened gap between the rich and
the poor. ‘Rural poverty alleviation has been the primary concern in
the econo mic planning and development process of the country.
Rural development which encompasses the whole range of
improvement in the overall quality of life in the rural areas can be
achieved through eradication of poverty in rural areas.’ Taking into
consideration the planning policy, va rious schemes of development,
especially the agricultural development, the main occupation of the
rural people, was introduced.munotes.in
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16The major early programs were -
Intensive Agricultural Area Program (IAAP)
Intensive Agricultural District Program (IADP)
High Yielding Varieties Program (HYVP)
Rural Industries Projects and Rural Artisans Programs (RIP and
RAP)
2.2 DIFFERENT POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMS
LAUNCHED
Besides the above programs, the central and state
governments also launched several pover ty alleviation programs for
the rural people. They are as follows:
2.2.1 20 -Point Program -
This had been a major program of rural development
encompassing various aspects of rural people. Former Prime
Minister Indira Gandhi introduced this program in Ju ly 1975 to
reduce poverty and economic exploitation and for the upliftment of
the weaker sections of the society. ‘Garibi Hatao’ was the slogan
given by her during the parliamentary elections.
The important goals of this program were -
Welfare of the ru ral masses
Welfare of women and children
Increase in rural employment.
Minimum wages to landless labourers
Uplift of the SC and ST people.
Making primary education more effective
Growth of housing facilities
New programs of family planning
Extensio n of primary health facilities
Other programs like drinking water facilities, public
distribution system, Increasing power production, etc. were
introduced. With the change in the government the program was
discontinued. However, the ruling party revised it in 1982 at the
centre with an emphasis on eradicating poverty and reducing
income inequalities, removing social and economic disparities and
thus improving the quality of life.
2.2.2 Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP) -
The government at th e centre launched the IRDP program in
March 1976 as a major tool to alleviate poverty.munotes.in
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17Its main feature was to enable selected families to cross the
poverty line in a given time -frame by taking up self -employment in
various activities like agriculture, h orticulture, animal husbandry,
weaving and handicrafts and services and business activ ities.
The target group consisted of small and marginal farmers,
agricultural labourers and rural artisans having annual income
below Rs. 11,000/ -defined as poverty l ine in the Eighth Plan.
Among the selected families, it is stipulated that at least 50 percent
of assisted families should be from SCs and STs. Furthermore, 40
per cent of the coverage should be of women beneficiaries. In spite
of its many important featur es, the program has also been criticized
widely.
The main criticisms against the program are -
1. There was much corruption, misuse and malpractice in the
implementation of the program at every level -from selection of
beneficiary families to the dist ribution of loans. Bribing was a sine
qua non for obtaining a loan.
2. The poor people were not well conversant about the program.
They took less interest in the program because they were afraid of
being cheated. Moreover, they were unable to fill up com plicated
forms and find the ‘guarantors’ for themselves.
3. The bank officials, through which loans were to be given, were
often reluctant towards these poor borrowers.
4. It was found that this scheme also could not make any significant
impact in the generation of employment in rural areas.
5. Several studies indicated that IRDP loans neither raised the
living standard of the beneficiaries, nor does it had any impact in
the alleviation of rural poverty for which this scheme was launched.
2.2.3 Tra ining Rural Youths for Self -Employment (TRYSEM) -
This scheme was launched in 1979 to provide technical skills
(training) to rural youths (between 18 -35 years) living below the
poverty line, to enable them to seek employment in fields of
agriculture, ind ustry, services and business activities. As in other
schemes of poverty alleviation, in this scheme also, youths
belonging to SCs and STs and ex -servicemen, who had passed
ninth class, were given priority. One -third seats were reserved for
women. The bene ficiaries of this scheme after completion of
training were absorbed in the IRDP scheme.munotes.in
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18According to an estimate, up to 1995 -96, about two lakh
youths were being trained every year, of whom about 45 per cent
became self -employed and 30 per cent got regula r employment.
In spite of being a good scheme, it has many shortcomings. For
example,
Its coverage is very small in relation to need;
The amount of stipend given to the trainees (about Rs 75 to
200 per month) to motivate the youth is very meagre to jo in training
programme; and Skills imparted in the training are of very low level
and not linked with rural industrialization process.
2.2.4 Food for Work Programme (FWP) -
This programme was introduced in 1977 by the then Janata
government with the objec tive to provide employment to the
unemployed / underemployed village persons during the slack
season. The wages paid to the workers were in kind, i.e., food
grains. The works undertaken were flood protection, maintenance
of existing roads, construction of new link roads, improvement of
irrigation facilities, construction of school buildings, medical and
health centres and Panchayat Ghars (community halls) etc.
2.2.5 National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) -
This is redesigned programme of FWP, planned for creating
additional employment opportunities in the rural areas with the help
of surplus food grains. It was started in 1980 as a part of the Sixth
Plan (1980 -85). This programme was especially for those rural
peopl ew h ol a r g e l yd e p e n d e do nw a g ee m p l o y m e n tb u th a dn o
source of income during lean agricultural period. Panchayat Raj
Institutions were actively involved in this programme.
Later on, this programme was merged with Jawahar Rozgar
Yojana (JRY).
2.2.6. Rur al Landless Employment Guarantee Programme
(RLEGP) -
Special schemes were formulated by some states such as
Maharashtra and Gujarat to provide increasing employment
opportunities to rural people, especially landless people.
Maharashtra started the Employm ent Guarantee Scheme (EGS) for
the unemployed in rural areas. The Gujarat government’s scheme
provided for unskilled jobs to the unemployed workers on different
projects. This scheme was later on merged into JRY along with
NREP.
2.2.7. Jawahar Rozgar Yoj ana (JRY) -
This programme came into existence in April 1989 with the
merger of the NREP and the RLEGP. Under this scheme, it wasmunotes.in
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19expected to provide at least one member of each poor family (BPL
family) an employment for 50 to 100 days in a year at a work near
his/her residence. About 30 percent of the jobs under this
programme were reserved for women. The scheme was imple
mented through Village Panchayats.
2.2.8. Antyodaya Yojana -
The Hindi word ‘antyodaya’ is a combination of two words -
ant meaning end or bottom level and udaya meaning development.
Thus, as a whole, it implies the development or welfare of a person
standing at the end of the queue (lowest level), that is, the poorest
of the poor.
This programme was initiated by the Government of
Rajasthan on 2nd October, 1977 for special assistance to persons
living below the poverty line (BPL). It was later on pick ed up by the
then Janata government at the centre in 1978. The idea was to
select five of the poorest families from each village every year and
help them in their economic betterment.
For the selection of beneficiary families, a few economic
criteria wer el a i dd o w n ,i no r d e ro fp r i o r i t y -
1)Families under severe desti tution without any productive assets
with no member in the age group of 15 -59 years capable of any
economic activity;
2)Families without any productive assets of land or cattle but
having one or more persons capable of working and with a per
capita income up to Rs 20 per month;
3)Families having some productive assets with per capita income
upto Rs 30 per month; and
4)Families having per capita income upto Rs 40 per month.
Under this scheme, assistance was given in the form of
allotting land for cultivation, monthly pension (Rs 30 -40 per month),
bank loan for purchasing bullocks, buffaloes, cows, goats and pigs,
basket making, carpentry tools, opening a tailor’s shop, a tea shop,
a barber’s shop or a grocer’s shop and manufacturing activities like
niwar -making, soap -making, etc.
The scheme has seen much ups and downs with many
shortcomings, such as delay in the payment of loans, apathy on the
part of government officials, etc. ‘A ntyodaya,’ as preached by
Mahatma Gandhi, has disappeared into ‘ananta’ or eternity and is
replaced with ‘Swantyodaya’, meaning one’s own development. It
places emphasis on ‘myself mentality.munotes.in
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202.2.9 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee
Sche me (MNREGS) -
After independence, for the development of rural society,
particularly to develop the socio -economic life of the rural poor,
many schemes and programmes were launched from time to time
but unfortunately the fruits of these programmes reached to a very
low proportion of these people.
It was estimated about 70 per cent of rural population was
still deprived of the basic necessities of life. For the purpose of
extending the benefits to rural people, a new scheme was launched
and legislation was enacted under the name ‘National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act’ (NREGA).
This scheme was initially started in 200 districts of the
country from February 2006 and from April 2008, it has been
extended to cover all the districts of the country. The main objective
of the scheme is to provide 100 days employment to rural
unemployed people. In this scheme, employment to women is also
provided.
Like other rural development schemes, this scheme is also
plagued with many problems —workers’ identification and
registration, muster rolls, works attendance, calculations and
disbursement of wages and overall transparency. In recent months,
people from all circles have also voiced great concern about the
rampant corruption in this scheme.
2.3SOME OTHER DEVELOPMEN T SCHEMES
1)Pradhan Mantri Adarsh Gram Sadak Yojana (PMAGSY) -
It focuses on integrated development of 100 villages with a
50 per cent population of SCs.
The Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) is a
100% centrally sponsored scheme aiming at prov iding all weather
road connectivity to eligible unconnected habitation in the States
and UTs. The respective State Governments / UT Administration
are responsible for execution of the projects under the programme.
National Rural Roads Development Agency (NRRDA), under
the Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, is the
Agency responsible for providing management and technical
support to the States for programme implementation. The
programme guidelines envisage a three tier Quality Control (QC)
Mechanism to ensure that the roads constructed under the
programme are to the prescribed quality standards. The first two
tiers of the (QC) structure are the responsibility of the respectivemunotes.in
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21State Governments and under the third tier, NRRDA engages
indepe ndent National Quality Monitors (NQMs) for inspections of
selected road works, at random. The NQMs under the third tier are
retired senior engineers of the level of Superintending Engineer and
above, empanelled by NRRDA on the recommendation of an
independ ent selection committee.
2)Bharat Nirman Yojana -
It was launched in 2005 for building infrastructure and basic
amenities in rural areas. It comprises of six components —rural
housing, irrigation, drinking water, rural roads, electrification and
rural telephony.
3)Indira Awas Yojana -
It is one of the six components of Bharat Nirman Yojana
introduced in 1985 -86. It aimed to help build or upgrade the
households of people living under BPL.
The genesis of the Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) can be traced
to the programmes of rural employment, which began in the early
1980s. Construction of houses was one of the major activities
under the National Rural Employment Programme (NREP), which
began in 1980, and the Rural Landless Employment Guarantee
Programme ( RLEGP), which began in 1983.
This resulted in the launching of Indira Awas Yojana as a
sub-scheme of RLEGP during 1985 -86. Thereafter, IAY continued
as a sub -scheme of Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) since 1989.
From the year 1993 -94, the scope of lAY was e xtended to cover
below the poverty line Non -Scheduled Castes / Scheduled Tribes
families in the rural areas. IAY was de -linked from JRY and made
an independent scheme with effect from 1st January 1996.
Since 1999 -2000, a number of initiatives have been taken to
improve the Rural Housing (RH) Programme by making provision
for upgradation of unserviceable kutcha houses and by providing
credit with subsidy for certain sections of the poor. Emphasis has
also been laid on use of cost effective, disaster resis tant and
environment friendly technologies in rural housing.
4)Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission
(JNNURM) -
It was launched on 3rd December, 2005. The main objective
of this scheme was fast track development of cities across the
country. It was focused especially on developing efficient urban
infrastructure service delivery mechanism, community participation
and accountability of urban local bodies and other agencies
towards citizen.munotes.in
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225)Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY) -
Rajiv Awas Yojana an In dian government centrally
sponsored Scheme attempts to help slum dwellers gain appropriate
housing and address the processes by which slums are created
and reproduced. Indian governments ministry of Housing and
Urban Poverty Alleviation introduced this pro gram. It was run
between 2013 -2014 and aimed to make India slum free by 2022 by
providing shelter or housing to the people free of cost. One million
beneficiaries were proposed to be covered under Rajiv Awas
Yojana during the 12th Five Year plan. Site sel ection was to be
made by the states in consultation with the centre. Priority was
given to the district headquarters, cities of religious heritage and
tourist importance. Due consideration was to be given to the place
of growth of the city, of slums within the city and predominance of
scheduled caste, scheduled tribe and minority population and other
weaker and vulnerable section of the society.
6)National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) -
The National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) was launched on
25th April 2005, to provide accessible, equitable, affordable and
quality health care to the rural population, especially to the
vulnerable groups. The thrust of the mission is to establish a fully
functional, community owned, decentralized health delivery system.
This is to be established with inter -sectoral convergence at all
levels, to ensure simultaneous action on a wide range of
determinants of health such as water, sanitation, education,
nutrition, social and gender equality. NRHM focuses on
reproducti ve, maternal, newborn, child health and adolescent
services. It emphasizes on strategies that can improve maternal
and child health through a continuum of care and the life cycle
approach. Moreover it also focuses on linking of community and
facility based care and strengthening referrals between various
levels of health care system to create a continuous care pathway.
7)Aajeevika -National Rural Livelihood Mission -
The Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India in
June 2011, launched national Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM). It
was meant to eradicate poverty by 2014 -15. The World Bank aided
this mission in part through investment support. The mission NRLM
aims at creating efficient and effective institutional platforms of the
rural poor, enabl ing them to increase household income through
sustainable livelihood enhancements and improved access to
financial services.
The agenda set by NRLM is to cover 7 crore rural poor
households, across 600 districts, 6000 blocks, 2.5 lakh Gram
Panchayats an d 6 lakh villages in the country through self help
groups that are self managed and federated institutions and
support them for livelihoods collectives in a period of 8 -10 years.munotes.in
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23In addition to this, the poor would be facilitated to achieve
increased acce ss to rights, entitlements and public services,
diversified risk and better social indicators of empowerment. It is
believed that through NRLM the innate capabilities of the poor
would be harnessed and would complement them with the
capabilities like infor mation, knowledge, skills, tools, finance and
collectivization to participate in the growing economy of the country.
This program was renamed as Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana (DAY -
NRLM) in November 2015.
8)National Food Security Scheme -
On the pattern o f MNREGS, the central government brought
the National Food Security Act in 2013 to provide guarantee for
food to the poor people. This act extends to whole of India and it
was to be rolled out by the states within one year of its enactment.
In the initial stage, majority of the states were not able to do this
because it required computerization of the beneficiaries lists as a
prerequisite. 67% of the population gets legal food security. The act
provides legal food security to the Indian population (67%). Th e
eligible person gets rice @ Rs 3/kg, wheat @ Rs 2 /kg and coarse
grains @Rs 1kg per month subject to maximum 5 kg per month. It
guarantees age appropriate meal, free of charge through local
anganwadi for children up to 6 months and one free meal for
children in age group 6 -14 years in schools. Every pregnant and
lactating mother is entitled to a free meal at the local anganwadi
(during pregnancy and six months after child birth). The
beneficiaries covered under Antyodaya Anna Yojana will be getting
35kg p er household per month at same rates. Government
employees will not get the benefit of this scheme.
2.4 DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY
(DRDA)
The DRDA has been the main organ at the district level to
look upon the implementation of different anti -poverty programs.
Keeping in view the need for an effective agency at the district level
to coordinate the anti -poverty effort, a new Centrally Sponsored
Scheme for strengthening the DRDAs has been introduced with
effect from 1st April 1999. Accordingly, the administrative costs are
met by providing separate budget provisions. This scheme which is
funded on a 75:25 basis between Centre and States, aims at
strengthening and professional sing the DRDAs.
DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY (DRDA)
1. The DRD As are not the implementing agencies, but can be very
effective in enhancing the quality of implementation through
overseeing the implementation of different programs and ensuringmunotes.in
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24that necessary linkages are provided. It acts as a catalyst in the
developme nt process.
2. The District Rural Development Agency is visualised as a
specialised and a professional agency capable of managing the
anti-poverty programs of the Ministry of Rural Development on the
one hand and to effectively relate these to the overa ll effort of
poverty eradication in the District. The role of the DRDA will
therefore be distinct from all the other agencies, including the Zilla
Parishad.
3. DRDAs are expected to coordinate with the line departments, the
Panchayati Raj Institutions, the banks and other financial
institutions, the NGOs as well as the technical institutions, with a
view to gathering the support and resources required for poverty
reduction effort in the district.
4. The DRDAs are expected to coordinate effectively wit h the
Panchayati Raj Institutions. Under no circumstances will they
perform the functions of PRIs.
5. The DRDAs will maintain their separate identity but will function
under the chairmanship of the Chairman of the Zilla Parishad.
Wherever the Zilla Pari shads are not in existence or are not
functional, the DRDAs would function under the Collector/District
Magistrate/Deputy Commissioner, as the case may be.
6. The DRDAs will monitor closely the implementation of different
anti-poverty programs of the mi nistry of rural development by
obtaining periodic reports as well as frequent field visits. The
purpose of the visit should be to facilitate the implementing
agencies in improving implementation process, besides ensuring
that the quality of implementation of programs is high.
7. The DRDAs shall keep the Zilla Parishad, the State and the
Central Government duly informed of the progress of the
implementation of the programs through periodic reports in the
prescribed formats.
8. It shall be the duty of t he DRDAs to oversee and ensure that the
benefits specifically earmarked for certain target groups (SC/ST,
women and disabled) reach them.
9. The DRDAs shall take necessary step to improve the awareness
regarding rural development and poverty alleviation particularly
among the rural poor.
10. The DRDAs will strive to promote transparency in the
implementation of different anti -poverty programs.munotes.in
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2511. Keeping in view, the substantial investment that are being made
in poverty alleviation programs, the DRDAs shall ensure financial
discipline in respect of the funds received by them, whether from
Central or State Governments.
12. Thus the role of the DRDA is in terms of planning for effective
implementation of anti -poverty programs; coordinating with other
agencies -Governmental, non -Governmental, technical and financial
for successful program implementation; enabling the community
and the rural poor to participate in the decision making process,
overseeing the implementation to ensure adherence to guid elines,
quality, equity and efficiency; reporting to the prescribed authorities
on the implementation; and promoting transparency in decision
making and implementation.
13. In addition the DRDAs shall coordinate and oversee the
conduct of the BPL Census and such other surveys that are
required from time to time.
14. The DRDAs shall also carry out / aid in carrying out action
research/or evaluation studies that are init iated by the Central /
State Governments.
15. The DRDAs should deal only with the anti -poverty programs of
the Ministry of Rural Development. If DRDAs are to be entrusted
with programs of other ministries or those of the State
governments, it should be ensured that these have a definite anti -
poverty focus. Entrusting of any program to the DRDAs, other than
anti-poverty programs of the Ministry, be it of any other Ministry of
Government of India or the respective State Government will have
to be done with the approval of the Secretary, Rural Development
of the respective State(s), who should examine such request in
consultation with the Ministry of Rural Development, Government of
India.
2.5 DIFFERENT SCHEMES IMPLEMENTED
PREVIOUSLY WERE MERGED WITH OTH ER
SCHEMES
National Food for Work Program was merged with NREGA.
Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana was merged with NREGA.
Intensified Jawahar Rojgar Yojana 1993 was merged with
Employment Assurance Scheme 1996 which was later merged with
Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana 2001. IRDP, TRYSEM,
DWCRA, Million Wells Scheme, S ITRA and Ganga Kalyan Yojana
were merged Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana. Rural
Landless Employment Guarantee Program was merged with
Jawahar Rojgar Yojana which was replaced by Jawahar Grammunotes.in
Page 26
26Samridhi Yojana (1999). Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana was
merged with Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (2001).
2.6 OTHER PROGRAMS IMPLEMENTED BY THE
MINISTRY OF INDIA
The Department of Rural Development is implementing a
number of programs in rural areas through the state Governments
for poverty reduction, em ployment generation, rural infrastructure
habitant development, provision of basic minimum services etc.
The important programs presently being implemented by the
Department are:
A-PRADHAN MANTRI GRAM SADAK YOJANA (PMGSY)
The Pradhan Mantri Gram Sada k Yojana (PMGSY) is a
100% centrally sponsored scheme. It aims to provide all weather
road connectivity to eligible unconnected habitation in the States
and Union Territories. The respective State Governments / Union
Territory Administration is responsible for execution of the projects
under the program.
National Rural Roads Development Agency (NRRDA), which
is under the Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, is
responsible for providing management and technical support to the
States for pro gram implementation. The program guidelines
envisage a three tier Quality Control (QC) Mechanism to ensure
that the roads constructed under the program are to the prescribed
quality standards. The first two tiers of the Quality Control structure
are the re sponsibility of the respective State Governments and
under the third tier, NRRDA engages independent National Quality
Monitors (NQMs) for inspections of randomly selected road works.
B-SWARNAJAYANTI GRAM SWAROJGAR YOJANA (SGSY)
The Swarnajayanti Gra mS w a r o j g a rY o j a n a( S G S Y )i sa
major self -employment scheme launched in April, 1999. It is a
combination of the IRDP program with allied programs i.e.
TRYSEM, DWCRA, SITRA, GKY, MWS. It aims at providing
sustainable income to rural BPL families through inc ome generating
assets / economic activities so as to bring them above the poverty
line. It involves processes like organization of the rural poor (BPL)
into self -help groups through social mobilization, capacity building
and training, provision of revolvin gf u n d ,m a k i n ga v a i l a b l ec r e d i t
and subsidy, technology, infrastructure and marketing.
SGSY has being restructured as National Rural Livelihoods
Mission (NRLM). It is a mission mode for targeted and time boundmunotes.in
Page 27
27delivery of results. It understands that po or people have the
potential to come out of poverty with proper hand holding, training
and capacity building and credit linkage. The SHGs will be given
handholding support in the form of internal and external support.
External support structure will consis t of professional institutions at
the state level, district level and sub -district level. The internal
support structure will be in the form of SHG federations at the
village level and block level and later at the district level.
The NRLM focuses on -
Universal Social Mobilization through formation of SHGs
under NRLM, SHG federations will be set up at the village level,
blocks and districts and cluster of villages, Universal financial
inclusion, Capacity Building and Training through Rural Self
Employm ent Training Institutes (RSETIs), Provision of enhanced
Revolving Fund and Capital Subsidy, Introduction of Interest
Subsidy, Provide Professional support, Involvement of States for
State Specific Action Plan, Special Projects, Improved evaluation
and moni toring.
NRLM will have partnerships with: i) Civil Society Organizations
ii) Industries iii) Educational Institutions iv) Other Resource
Organizations
2.7 SUMMARY
Development of rural areas has always been one of the
paramount concerns of the vari ous programs through five years
plans. Several rural development programs were launched
especially to provide job opportunities to raise their income,
improve their standard of living by eradicating poverty. These
programs were designed to create socio -economic infrastructure
necessary for rapid development of rural areas and to increase
income of individual rural people by providing productive job. These
programs provided certain economic and social infrastructure,
ensuring facilities like roads, electrici ty, transport, drinking water,
medical care, primary -school etc. They have acted as a catalyst in
bringing socio -economic changes in rural life. Programs like IRDP,
NREP, DDP, RLEGP TRYSEM, Women and children development
program were launched to increase t he income of rural people.
2.8SELF -STUDY
What were the different poverty alleviation programs undertaken
to eliminate poverty in the country?
Answer in detail the District Rural Development Agency.munotes.in
Page 28
28Answer in short the different schemes merged into each other.
Write in detail th e Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana -
SGSY 5) Write short notes on : -
a)20 point program
Integrated Rural Development Program -IRDP
Training for Rural Youth and Self -Employment -TRYSEM
Food for Work Program -FWP
National Rural Employment Program -NREP and Rural
Landless
Employment Guarantee Program -RLEGP
Jawahar Rojgar Yojana -JRY and Antyodaya
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme -MNREGS
Bharat Nirman Yojana and Indira Awas Yojana
Rajiv Awas Yojana
National Rural Health Mission -NRHM
National Rural Livelihood Mission -NRLM
National Food Security Scheme
Pradhan Mantri Adarsh Gram Sadak Yojana -PMAGSY
References:
www.gov.nic.inHYPERLINK "http://www.gov.nic.in/"
www.slideshare.com
Mishra S. K. & Puri V. K., Himalaya Publishing House, New
Delhi, 2006 -“ Development Issues of Indian Economics”.
Desai Vasant, Himalaya publishing house, Mumbai, 2005 -“
Rural Development in I ndia -Past Present and Future”.
Rudra Dutt & K.P.m.Sundaram, S. Chand & Company, Delhi,
2000 -“ Indian Economics”.
Rural India, Publication Division, Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting, GOI.
Kurukshetra, Publication Division, Ministry of Informa tion and
Broadcasting, GOI.
munotes.in
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293
RURAL SOCIETY
Dr. Dilip S. Patil
Unit Structure :
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Concept of rural society
3.3 Factors responsible for the origin of villages
3.4 Nature of rural society
3.5 Characteristics of rural society
3.6 Change in the rural society
3.7 Summary
3.8 Self Study
3.0 OBJECTIVES
Can study rural society.
Can understand the nature of rural society
Can study the characteristics of rural society
Can understand the direction of radical change.
3.1INTRODUCTION
Mahatma Gandhi said that India is a land of villages. Out of
the total countries population 68% lives in villages. There are more
than 6 lakh villages in India. Due to the different geographical
conditions the social and material diversity is found. In olden days
due to lack of transport and communication facilities villages were
self contained and independent. Villages were the nuclei of ancient
India. Rural societies necessities were fulfilled by the local rural
people only. Self sufficien cy gained firmness because of Balutedari
system. Agriculture was the main occupation. Before the Britishers
came rural self sufficiency had been there for centuries.
During the British period self sufficiency and independency
of the rural areas was destr oyed. Lots of changes were there in the
social organization. There were changes in the rural society. There
was disintegration in the society. Rural society faced with the
problems like poverty and unemployment. The rural financialmunotes.in
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30condition was affected b y Industrialization, Urbanization and
Westernization.
3.2 CONCEPT OF RURAL SOCIETY
Rural society has thousands of years old history. Rural
community means people living in a village and rural society means
people in the rural areas. In Indian society village is a very ancient
residence. Even the Vedas mention of villages. Rig -Veda has
mentioned about village. Ramayana and Mahabharata mention
about village. Manusmriti has discussed about the structure of a
village. Kautilya arthashastra also has mention ed about the
discussion of rural people.
Before the villages emerged India was covered with dense
forests. Only wild animals lived in this forests which was not safe
for human beings. For safety and security people cleared the
forests with each others h elp and started living together in a
community. This is how villages emerged. Because of agriculture a
stability came to their life. As a result permanent type of settlement
came into being which depended on agriculture and monetary
planning.
In the medi eval period villages were self sufficient to a great
extent. Factors like Caste system, Joint family system, Balutedari
system played an important role. In modern times the scene that
the rural life has attained self sufficiency, living in one place, livin g
in the same community has changed. Industrialization and
Westernization has brought a change in the lifestyle of the rural
people.
3.2.1 Definitions of rural society
While studying rural society it is necessary to study a few
definitions of villages. What is a village or village community can be
understood from the following definitions.
1) T.N. Atre -“The area which has black and fertile soil and suitable
for farming operations and there are skilled and experienced
farmers and many labourers is called a village.”
2) Anderson -“Rural community resides on the scattered land and
village is the centre for all its activities.”
3) T.N.ATRE -“Cultivation means tilling the land and peasant
means cultivator and the settlement of cultivators is a village.”
4) Pick -“Rural community is a group of people either related or not
related and is like a big fam ily. In this houses are very nearby andmunotes.in
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31there is agriculture is practiced there. There is barren land spread
here and there. Animals are taken for grazing, the border of the
village is fixed and people love their land and have a feeling of
oneness.”
Check your progress
Q-Explain the concept of rural society by giving some definitions.
3.2.2 Types of rural village
On the basis of stability of the rural community Anderson has
given three types of villages. They are as follows: -
1. Transient villages : The village in which the villagers change
their residence every now and then or frequently is called a
transient village.
For example : Scheduled tribes practicing migratory agriculture,
Kadar from south India, Baiga from central part of India .
2. Partial stable villages :The village in which people stay for a
specific period in one place then after some period change the
place to go to some other area are partial stable villages. For
example: -Naga, Gond, Madia community.
3. Stable villages: After the development in agric ulture the
communities which stayed there permanently and this formed a
village. Such villages are called stable villages.
According to Dr Iravati Karve there are three types of villages :
1. Centralized village: Those villages which have stable
commu nities ,and the houses are very close to each other, having
common village area and the agricultural land is suitable for
cultivation. For ex: -Maharashtra plateau region.
2. Scattered village: Houses build on both the sides of the road
spread over a lo ng distance. For ex: -Villages in the konkan region
of Maharashtra and Kerala state.
3. Small villages: Limited houses make a hamlet and many such
hamlets together can be called as a village. For ex: -hamlets.munotes.in
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32Check your progress
Q-What are the d ifferent types of villages?
3.3 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE ORIGIN OF
VILLAGES
Rural society has very important place in the Indian society.
In the olden days villages were self sufficient and independent.
Therefore this was considered to be the golden period of the village
society. There are many factors responsible for the origin of
villages. These factors are as follows: -
1) Geographical Factors: -
Villages were set up only in those areas where the favorable
factors like water, air, clima te, land were there. There are few
villages where the climate and other factors are not favorable.
Villages came into being at a faster rate where the factors like
fertile land, the favorable climate, availability of water were
available.
2) Economical F actors: -
Agriculture gave stability to the migratory nature of human
beings. Villages were settled in places where land was fertile as a
result their financial was better than the other regions. Every one
preferred to stay in the fertile land region becau se the society there
was financially prosperous.
3) Social Factors: -
Society without any clashes is one of the factors responsible
for a healthy society. If the social relations in a society are good
and healthy, villages are developed in those areas at a faster rate
and their progress also can be very fast.
4) Co -operation: -
Co-operation also is one of the bases of a successful
society. These villages can progress to a great extent.munotes.in
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33Check your progress
Q-Explain the concept of rural society?
3.4 NATURE OF RURAL SOCIETY
Indian rural society has an hereditary age old tradition.
History of emergence of Indian rural society is the history of India. It
is because of agriculture people in the ancient days started to live a
settled life. In India most of the population lives in villages.
Compared to the urban areas the rural life is a little backward. Rural
sociology deals the study of rural life style independently. This is
the nature of rural life.
The obstacles in the rural societie s development are : -
Agriculture depending on the nature and the economic
problems created through it, illiteracy, lack of knowledge or
ignorance, traditions and customs, superstitions. Solving these
problems will help in the rural development. For this s tudy of rural
society is very essential. A study of rural society with the following
points: -a study of the difference in the rural and urban areas, family
system, caste system, class structure, rural education etc means
understanding the nature of rural society. Rural sociology has dealt
with this topic in detail. While studying this topic following factors
have been given priority.
1) Rural Structure:
Based on the geographical factors the study of different
types of villages -scattered villages and c lustered villages is
studied while studying the rural society.
2) Rural social structure:
Different institutions like family institutions, caste structure,
marriage institutions have strengthened the rural society. As a
result this institutions and their changing nature has importance in
rural development.
3) Rural Economic Structure:
Agriculture is the main occupation of the rural society. So
rural economic conditions or structure is controlled by agriculture.
4) Character istic feature of rural socie ty:
Rural society is very different from the urban society. Nature
has great effect on the rural society.munotes.in
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34This society is different due to the occupational structure
practiced i.e agriculture.
5) Rural socie ty and its internal activities:
The factors like communication pattern of the rural society,
nature of communication between an individual and group,
competitions, conflicts in the rural society are studied here.
6) Rural Reconstruction:
Rural society is faced with problems such as migration, lack
of employment opportunities, educational and social problems.
Some measures are to be adopted to solve these problems and
also rural reconstruction is necessary.
From the above discussion description of rural society can
be imagined in detailed. During the British period rural society had
a drastic change. Poverty and unemployment came into existence
as the handicraft industry was demolished. Along with this it was
affected with the problems such as population explosion, illiteracy,
customs and tradition s, superstitions and indebtedness. After
independence many programs for the development of the rural
society were implemented ,but they could not get success in that.
Today also there are many villages which lack transport and
communication facilities. Tra ditional methods are still in practice in
agriculture. Development programs still do not reach these people.
Due to subdivision and fragmentation and lack of industries
unemployment problem is a very serious issue. Villages are
becoming vacant due to migra tion. A proper decision has to be
taken to solve these problems.
Check your progress
Q-Explain the nature of rural study?
3.5 CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF RURAL
SOCIETY
Rural society has some specific features due to which it can
be distin guished from other societies. Due to these features only
villages still has its existence till today. Some features are as
follows.munotes.in
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351) Agriculture is the main occupation -
Agriculture is the main occupation of the rural society. As the
rural society is d irectly or indirectly dependent on agriculture , it is
main source of generating income. Social status, lifestyle level and
cultural life depend on agriculture. Its means agriculture is the way
of living of the rural society. The status of a person depends on
basis of ownership of land pattern. Reputation and honour is
related to agriculture.
2) Natural geographical conditions -
Due to agriculture rural society comes in direct contact with
the natural geographical conditions or resources. Due to fertile soil,
rivers, forest resources rural society gets pure air and water. There
is no pollution in these areas. Because of agriculture rural society
tries to coordinate with the rural society. MacIver says that the
farmer looks upon nature as crop producer, po uring rain, bringing
disaster, friend or foe.
3) Small size -
Rural society is small in size if compared to its total land
area, population density and agricultural occupation. This society is
dispersed in hamlets and small villages. Due to limited job
opportunities rural population is migrating to the urban areas on a
large scale. As a result we see the small size of the rural
community.
4) Social status -
Class and caste structure decides the social status of an
individual in the society. Social s tatus in the rural society is based
on the caste structure. The effect of class structure is not much in
the rural society. Due to caste structure marriages take place in the
caste only as per traditions and culture. Even the houses are
distributed as per the caste structure. An individual’s life is totally
under the control of caste structure. Every caste has its own
independent and peculiar features. This bond of caste is very
strong.
5) Lack of mobility -
Bringing about a change in the caste structure , culture and
traditions is termed as mobility. But rural society is dominated by
the culture and traditions due to which their life is limited only to a
small jurisdiction. The same age old occupation is carried forward
generation by generation. Also the quality remains the same.
Because of occupational immobility the rural society has the habit
of sticking to one job only. They are not ready to leave their job or
occupation very easily.
6) Joint family system -
Rural society depends on agriculture and for this man power
is necessary. Therefore the joint family system in the rural society.munotes.in
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36In this father is the head of the family. Social, mental and economic
security is obtained because of joint family system. The joint family
system adopts the policy of labour division. Spirit of co -operation is
seen over here.
7) Cultural Life -
Rural society has a very rich cultural life. Different games,
Bharud (a long intricate story), Kirtan (the narration of a topic
punctuated by music), pravachan (an exposition or lecture) are
included in this. Village temple is the main centre for all the cultural
activities. During the village fair or any festival cultura lp r o g r a m so f
dance, ballads and folk songs by a poet and a class of mendicants
called vasudev perform the cultural functions. It is through these
cultural programs cultural tradition is preserved.
8) Status of women in the rural society -
As traditio n plays an important role in the rural society the
women are deprived of all the powers. Many restrictions are laid on
the women. Her limited area is the kitchen and children. As the
society is male dominated she has no powers in the decision
making. Even though by law she has been given the status of equal
rights as per the males, still she is not treated equally. Due to lack
of education, early marriage, ill -treatment she has to face many
problems. Though she is the helping hand to earn the money she
does n’t have the right to utilize the produced product. In a family
also she has no rights to take decision, she is of secondary
importance.
9) Internal relationship in the rural society -
Rural society is small in size. Therefore a feeling of oneness,
affinity, co -operation and brotherhood is developed among the rural
society. Social control has great effect on it. People in the village
have unity among themselves. It seems as if whole village is one
family.
10) Simple and honest life -
Rural people lea das i m p l ea n dp l a i nl i f e .T h e i rf i n a n c i a l
status is not so good. Their lifestyle does not show off. Their
necessities are limited which results in a simple and leading a quiet
life. They have a feeling of brotherhood and sympathy towards
each other.
11)Balutedari system -
It was because of Balutedari system rural society gained self
sufficiency. Exchange of goods for goods is the feature of
Balutedari system. In this system a specific caste gives service to
the society and the society in turn provides service to this caste in
return by providing him the source of livelihood. Getting servicemunotes.in
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37from others is called Balutedari system. After independence this
system has remained only by name.
12) Division of labor -
Agriculture is the main occupation of the rural society. All the
people engaged in this occupation are expert in the agricultural
operations like cultivating the land, sowing the seeds, tilling the
crops, cutting the crops. Women also engage themselves in the
agricultural work as soon as they finish their household work. From
this we can say that agricultural operations do not need any special
training as such. They get this education from the family itself. So
special training and skill is not the basis of division of labour, but it
is the se x and age factor which is concerned.
13) Poverty and Illiteracy -
Even though primary education is compulsory and free due
to poverty and ignorance the percentage of education is very less.
Due to lack of education they cannot acquire the skilled traini ng ,as
a result we find lots of unskilled workers in the rural society.
Economic status or the financial condition is not good due to
unskilled nature of labour. So the rural society is facing the
problems of poverty and indebtedness.
14) Effect of Cultu re and Traditions -
Rural society is religious minded. There is more effect of
culture and tradition and superstitious beliefs on the rural society.
Instead of taking patient to the doctor they take him to the witch
doctor. As agriculture depends on natur e, to please nature they
perform rites and rituals and it has become tradition. They have the
feeling that whatever happens good or bad it is god’s wish ,so they
spend more on religious functions.
These are the characteristic features of the rural societ y.
From the above feature we get an idea of the rural life.
15) Lack of Individual Initiative -
Family members have to follow the rigid conditions created
by the joint family and caste system. As a result they lack in taking
initiative in any of the cho res of life.
16) Narrow Mindedness -
The village community been separated and isolated and
being left untouched have become narrow minded. They lack the
feeling of national consciousness and the spirit of oneness.
17) Lack of Modern Facilities for Re creation -
Villages have no modern amenities for recreation. They don’t
have movie theatres, social clubs and modern games to play for
their children.munotes.in
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3818) Inadequate Medical Facilities -
Due to inadequate medical facilities the infant and maternal
mortality rate is high. Primary health centres or the medical aid in
the rural areas lack modern life saving facilities. trained nurses and
doctors are not available in the remotest rural areas.
Check your progress
Q-Specify the features of rural society.
3.6 CHANGE IN THE RURAL SOCIETY
After studying the characteristic features we get an idea of
the lifestyle of the rural society. Due to industrialization and
urbanization the process of change has started, but at a slower
rate. A change began to come in the rural community structure and
culture. A description of this changes is given below.
1)Change in the family structure:
Joint family system prevailed in the rural society due to
agriculture as the main occupation. Minimum three generati ons
members of the family would work on the farms. Due to
modernization nuclear family system came into being in the place
of joint family system. The head of the family had to loosen his grip
of powers on the family. Lifestyle changed. Self centered natur e
and hereditary rights gave rise to clashes in the family for the
property distribution. This resulted in the separation of views
between the family members.
2)Change in the Marriage structure:
The effect of family institution was decreased. As a resu lt an
individual’s view was given importance while thinking of marriage.
Awareness was created among the people regarding the custom of
child marriage and widow remarriage. For the want of status lots of
expenses are done on the marriage ceremony. Even the dowry
system has increased to a great extent in the society.
3)Change in the Caste and Class structure:
In the modern period many changes have come in the caste
and class structure. For ex. choosing the occupation or fixing the
marriages. Transport an d communication has minimized the
dependency on one another.munotes.in
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394)Change in Clothing Habits:
A fast Change in the type of clothes worn by the rural folks and also
a change in style of dress is seen in the rural areas. Use of
readymade garments is now beco ming more prevalent.
5)Change in Eating Habits:
Nowadays small hotels, restaurants, tea shops have come
up in the rural areas. As a result we can see a change in the food
habits in the rural areas.
6)Decline in the Traditional Art:
Folk art, folk music, folk dance, rural theatres are adapting to
the modern culture. Mass media like radio, television, etc.
accelerate the pace of change in rural culture.
7)Change in the Consumption pattern:
Development of transport and communication facilities has made
the villagers to change their consumption pattern.
8)Change in the Vocabulary:
The availability of various facilities and modern amenities
have cast influence on the vocabulary and the respective language
spoken by the villagers in the rural ar eas. The villagers are making
use of a host of English terms in their conversation.
9)Change in the Economic structure :
In the olden days the economic status of the society was
fixed as per the occupation. But due to modernization decision in
choosing the occupation, use of modern methods of agriculture a
change has come in the financial status of the rural society. Due to
population explosion subdivision of land increased at a faster rate.
There was an increase in the rural landless labourers. Rich fa rmers
became more rich and poor farmers became more poor.
10)Change in the Rural Political Structure:
Rural politics was dominated by caste structure. Politics was
in the hands of higher caste people. But the 73rd amendment act
gave rights to women, scheduled caste and tribes, nomadic tribes
were given right to participate actively in the Panchayat Raj system
i.e they were given reservations in the political system.
11) Change in the Education and Entertainment Field: -
After independence importance of education was spread in
the rural areas too. Along with boys girls also started taking
education. The percentage of illiteracy decreased due to spread of
programs like Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan and Adult Education.
In olden days rural families were the main center of
entertainment. The source of entertainment in the rural areas aremunotes.in
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40Bhajans, Kirtan, Pravachan, fairs, folk art. Modernization helped to
build a bridge between rural and urban society, as a result the re
was a change in the entertainment pattern. Television, movies were
the main source of entertainment.
Formal education has replaced the informal pattern of
education. Educational facilities are made available to the rural
masses through distance educat ion through television. Through
universalization of education, rural masses have access to the
different educational institutions irrespective of caste and religion.
12) Technological Changes:
Power and energy have replaced the old traditional use of
animal and manual power. They have started using modern
equipments running on electricity. Mechanization of agriculture has
been useful to speed up the farming operations. Modern inputs
have enabled the farmers to improve the agricultural operations.
Financi al institutions and change in agricultural technology enabled
the farmers to raise his standard of living and free themselves from
the clutches of village moneylenders and other land grabbers. The
availability of electricity in the rural areas benefited th es a w -mill
owners, flour -mill owners, oil -millers, weavers, cottage industries
and handicrafts, jiggery makers, etc.
Natural conditions, westernization, science and technology
are the other factors responsible for these changes. This has
resulted in the change in lifestyle of rural community.
Check your progress :
Q-Give reasons for the change in the rural society?
3.7 SUMMARY
Rural society in the Indian society has great value. Majority
of the population resides in the rural areas. Relig ious books like
Ramayana, Mahabharata, Rigveda have mentioned about rural
society. Depending on the population size and occupational pattern
different types of villages are set up. The progress of the rural
society mainly depends on the geographical factor s. Climate, land
and water are the main factors. Social institutions, rural structure,munotes.in
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41and financial structure is very important in the rural society. Rural
society has its own specific features so it is different from the other
sector of the society. Agri culture is the main occupation and
depending on it are family system, customs and traditions, caste
structure also are important for the rural society. Modernization and
industrialization developed the rural society at a faster rate.
Therefore important ch anges have taken place in the rural society
in the fields of culture, occupation and education.
3.8 SELF STUDY
Give the special features of the rural society.
What is rural society and which factors are responsible for its
origin?
Write short notes :-
1)Nature of rural society.
2)Types of rural societies
3)Changes in the rural society.
References:
C.H. Shah, Orient Longman, Mumbai, 1991 -“Agricultural
Development in India : Policy and Problem”.
Mishra S. K. & Puri V. K., Himalay aP u b l i s h i n gH o u s e ,N e w
Delhi, 2006 -“ Development Issues of Indian Economics”.
Reddy K. Venkata Himalaya Publishing House, 2001 -
“Agriculture and Rural Development -A Gandhian Perspective”.
G. Rajnikanth & R. R. Prasad, Discovery Publishing House,
NewD e l h i ,2 0 0 6 -“ Rural Development and Social Change”.
www.inflibnet.ac.inHYPERLINK "http://www.inflibnet.ac.in/"
munotes.in
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424
RURAL SOCIAL STRUCTURE -FAMILY
INSTITUTION
Dr. Pravin T. Sanaye
UnitS t r u c t u r e:
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Rural Social Institutions
4.2.1 Meaning of rural social system
4.2.2 Characteristics of social institutions
4.2.3 Types of Social Institutions
4.2.4 Work done by the social institutes
4.3 Family Institution
4.3.1 Definition of a Family
4.3.2 Features of a family
4.3.3 Types of family institutions
4.3.4 Functions of the Family
4.3.5 Changes in the family institution
4.4 Summary
4.5 Self study
4.0 OBJECTIVES
Can understand th e meaning of rural social structure.
Can understand the importance of rural social structure.
Can study the rural family system.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Through different social institutions people in the society are
related to the moral values. Social Gr oup is a group of people who
through cooperation directly or indirectly come together for doing
specific work by contacting each other. Distribution of work
(transactions or trade or deals) essential for humans in the social
life is distributed amongst dif ferent groups. To fulfill the day to day
needs of the human society certain social laws by cultures,
traditions, ethics, morality were put forward due to which they
develop a certain tendency or specific outlook. As the social lawsmunotes.in
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43are inter -related rules having common goal can be put together. A
group of rules bound together for specific purpose is called an
institution. Every society has social institutions having certain goals.
Each and every individual is a member of the social society or
institution.
4.2 RURAL SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
4.2.1 Meaning of rural social system -
The necessary transaction in human society is divided under
following heads -economics, politics, religion, education etc. As per
tradition different groups are formed for different activities.
Therefore by tradition every group or the member has a fixed mode
of working or he develops the habit of working in a specific way,
which does not change. Social institutions are a group of people
who fulfill their duties, which are entrusted t o them.
1) In sociology social institutes means -“A collection of traditions
and customs and practices related to the needs of an individual or
society.
2) According to Kingsley David -“Social institution is a group of
tradition, customs and practice so n ei na l lr e v o l v i n ga r o u n do n eo r
many activities.”
3) According to Boguard’s -“Social institutions are the behaviour
patterns which are prepared carefully to fulfill the needs of the
human society.
The nature of social institutions is not the same everywhere.
The moral values which are created for activities like procreation,
child rearing or child care, production, education, arrangement and
so on are preserved as social heritage. This has resulted in the
specific behaviour of man and woman in the society. For ex: -Men
and Women coming together for procreation and child rearing have
to be in certain limitations which is called a sovereign state.
These restrictions go on changing as days pass by. If you
have to study the social changes in the society it is essential to
study the social institutions. The main objective behind establishing
the social institutions is to fulfill the needs regarding the individual
or societies existence. Family institutions, marriage institutions,
religious institut ions together make social structure. Therefore
these institutions are the foundations of social institutions. It is
possible to keep stability in the society, child rearing, and also
possible to keep a check on the groups in the society. Or else wemunotes.in
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44can say that to fulfill the objectives family, finance, religion,
sovereignty and education are seen in the society.
In Indian society caste structure also is the basic institution.
Caste structure is the foundation of Hindu society. Joint family
system and cas te system are very important. Without the study of
these foundations the study of Indian rural society is incomplete.
4.2.2 Characteristics of social institutions :
1)Social customs together make an institution. Institution is a
working factor in the cultural structure. For ex: -It is through
marriage institution a family gets its stability and the task of
procreation is achieved.
2)Institutions are stable in the society. For ex: -Religion.
3)Every institution has one or many objectives to fulfill the needs.
For ex: -Family institution -procreation and child rearing
4)Social institutions have a specific symbol. For ex: -symbol of
family is house.
5)Every institution has written or unwritten traditions and customs.
It is through this the members behaviour is reflected.
In this way the characteristics of the institutions explain the
nature of institutions. It is through institution the institutes only; the
binding of the organized behaviour is done. Institutions have been
developed to fulfill human needs through traditions and customs.
For the development of social institutions it is given the base of
philosophy. As a result related to every aspect of hu man social life,
different institutions have been emerged in the society.
4.2.3 Types of Social Institutions :
To fulfill the different needs of the society institutions have
emerged. The different types of institutions are as follows: -
1)There are two types of institutions based on its emergence.
a) Enthusiasm -Institutions like family, marriage, religion emerged
from the traditions and customs.
b) Purposely -Institutions like financial, state and education have
come into existence on purpose.
2)There are two types on the working nature of the institutes.
a) Basic Institutions -The well -being of the society depends on
the basic institutions like family, marriage, religion, state, education
etc.munotes.in
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45b) Secondary Institutions -It cannot be said that because of the
secondary institutions the well -being of the society is intact. Ex -
Entertainment Institution.
c) Working Institutions -The rules for fulfilling specific work under
different necessities are put forward through working institut ions.
For Ex -The necessities are fulfilled through the family and
marriage institutions.
d) Institutes based on Rules and Regulations -Individuals
behaviour is controlled by the institutes like religion and judicial.
e) Institutes based on its ext ension -Based on its extent the
institute is divided into two types -world wide extension or limited to
a certain extent. The religious institute is a world wide phenomena
but caste institute is limited only in India.
Check your progress
Q-State th e features and types of social institutes.
4.2.4 Work done by the social institutes :
Behind forming various institutes there is a specific motto.
Without this the institute cannot progress. Institute helps in fulfilling
the necessities of an individual or society. Different works done by
the institutes are as follows:
1)Fulfillment of the needs of the human beings -
Without developing any clashes in the society the human
needs are fulfilled. Certain rules are made and followed by the
members. As a result a favourable climate is created for the
progress of the social progress.
2) Following the culture -
Institutes play an important part in human life. Institution is
passed on hereditarily from one generation to other. Along with
institute culture is also passed to the next generation.
3)Social control -
From thi s point of view the institutes perform important
duties. Every institute has its own rules. Human beings achievemunotes.in
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46their aims and objectives by fulfilling the rules. Therefore there are
no clashes in the society. This helps in keeping peace and
wellbeing in the society.
4)Creating a favourable atmosphere -
Because of the institution humans can fulfill their needs in a
proper manner. The necessities are fulfilled following the rules and
regulations of the institution, so there are no clashes. As a
favou rable atmosphere is created to achieve the objectives helps in
the individual and society development.
5) Guidance -
Institutions are very important for the development of
society. Institutes always guide the individual to fulfill his
necessities, so that he gets a proper direction. Lots of time is saved
because of the guidance of the institution.
6) To determine the duties -
An individual has to play different roles in the society. For
ex:-member of the family, constituent of society etc. The in stitute
decides which duties are to be performed in each role. Institutes
create a favourable atmosphere to perform the duties. As a result a
well organized structure comes into existence.
Check your progress
Q-Explain the working of the social instit utions.
4.3 FAMILY INSTITUTION
Introduction:
Indian culture has an age -old tradition of thousands of years.
In olden days village was the centre of culture and social life. India
was invaded many times, many other changes took place but
villages remained as they were. This was possible only because of
the importance of family institution in the olden days in Indian
villages and culture which has been preserved till today. In the
characteristics of Indian society rural society, caste system an d
family system are important. Amongst all the institutions family
institution is the basic and primary the most important institution.
Family institute includes all the facets. The existence of familymunotes.in
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47institute is seen in all the stages of human developme nt. Family
institution is the primary stage of development. It is due to family
institution consistency in the rural society has remained.
The word family has emerged from the word ‘Famalus’ a
Latin word. Family means a group of people includes father, m other
and their children. In every society family is the center of other
institutions. An individual is born in a family and most of the time he
spends in the family only. Family is an unique institution which
fulfills the needs of an individual. An indivi dual gets his primary
lessons of social life in the family itself. An individual’s over all
development depends upon the family.
Family institution is one of the best resources for
socialization. After the birth of a child he is given the knowledge of
basic moral values. The inculcation of moral values is very
important if an individual has to be developed to his best. Family
institution is the main support of the society. An individual or family
feels safe and secure in the family.
4.3.1 Definition of aF a m i l y
Different sociologist have put forward different definitions of
af a m i l y .T h e ya r ea sf o l l o w s: -
1)MacIver and Page:
“A small group but sufficient and of permanent nature based
on the sex relationship to complete the activities like procre ation
and childrearing is called a family.”
2)Dr.D.N.Muzumdar:
“A group of people living in one house, in blood relation, and
is concerned for the welfare of each other and is conscious about
the duties is a family.”
3)Robert Louie:
“Family is a group based on the marriage institution. It
includes father, mother and their children.”
4)Kibble Young:
“If in a social group one or many males and their one or
many females staying with their own or adopted children till the
children are smal l in one place or house is called a family.”
5) Thomas:
“Family means a system created for mother father and their
children’s relationship.”munotes.in
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486) Sumner and kaeler:
“Family is a minute social organization. Based on blood
relationship two generation s are included in this organization.”
On the basis of the above definitions some specific
characteristic are observed.
4.3.2 Features of a family
Family institution whether it be rural or urban its basic
concepts or features are the same. For ex. comm on living place,
structure, unity amongst themselves etc. But still many differences
are seen in the rural and urban families. It can be seen in the
working patterns and features. We will study a few features of rural
society in this part.
1) Marital Rela tionships: Family institution is created by the male
and female relationship after their marriage. This relationship has
consent of the society. The child who has taken birth from this
relationship becomes a permanent member of the family. Marriages
can b e of long term or short term basis. Death or divorce from the
partner brings an end to this marriage relationship.
2) Blood Relationship: Each and every member in the family is
related by blood. Mother father and children have a blood relation in
the sa me way they are related to other relatives of their parents.
3) Common Residence: Family members stay together. Therefore
common residence is an important feature of the rural family
institution. The residential abode is big because the size of the
family is big. It is seen that three generations stay together in a joint
family system.
4)Patriarchal Family System: In rural areas patriarchal system of
family is observed. Father is the head of the family. So he is the
final authority in taking decision s. Everybody in the family respect
and honour him.
5) Joint Family System: Joint family system is observed in rural
families. As members of three generations live in the house
together the size of these family is very big. The property does not
belong to an individual but to everyone in common, so everyone
has the right to use it in common. The principle of labour division is
accepted.
6)Financial arrangement: Due to joint family system in the rural
families the number of members is more. The head of the family
has to fulfill the responsibility of rearing up the family, providing the
means of livelihood and any means of support to the family. Every
member part icipates in the income earning process. Every membermunotes.in
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49in the family tries to help the family head to increase the families
income by division of labour.
7) Discipline and Interdependence: The eldest member in the
family is the head of the family. Everyon e obeys his decision as the
control of the whole family is in his hands. There is lack of self
centered attitude. Discipline and interdependence is seen in this
family. Obeying the elders decision is an important part of this
society. Discipline and co -operation develops a feeling that family is
responsibility of each and every member in the family.
8) Preserving the Tradition and Culture: A drastic change has
taken place in the Indian society due to modernization, but the rural
society is far away from these changes. The rural society has
preserved the culture by protecting the traditions, practices,
conduct agreeable to the shastras beha viour, ceremonies and
observances. The old and the eldest member is paid great respect
in the family. His experience and knowledge is seeked for the
business.
9) Medium of Socialization: The family is the best medium of
socialization. The family is the first school of an individual. The
basic moral values are inculcated on the child’s mind in the family
only. An individual gets his trade or business education in the family
itself along with the moral values. Every member in the family
teaches the child a bout discipline, feeling of co -operation,
respecting the elders etc. which are apart of socialization.
10) Dominance of the family: In a rural society family is more
important than the individual. Family represents each and every
individual of the family. The prestigious families in the village gains
importance from the political point of view. Families decision is
important regardin g this matter. In the olden days each and every
family is involved in the decision making process.
11) Including all the facets: Family institution considers all the
facets of life. It is found in all the stages of human life. Every
individual in the fa mily has an emotional relationship with each
other. Therefore the family really has a feeling of homeliness.
Changes are occurring due to industrialization, education,
globalization and modernization. But still in modern times family
institution plays an important role in the society.munotes.in
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50Check your progress
Q-Give the definitions and features of family institution.
4.3.3 Types of family institutions
Family institution has given a specific shape to human life.
Individual is related to the society because of emotional
relationship, co -operation and socialization. Family system also
helps in the economical benefit to the family. Family institution is
the foundation of basic moral values. Rural life is centralized
around the family institu tion. Therefore family institution is
considered important in rural society.
If we observe the family institutions in human life we see
some special characteristics based on their structure. On that basis
family can be categorized in the following ways: -
1)Number of members in the family: There are two types of
families based on this structure: -
a)Joint Family system -
b)Nuclear family system -
2) Based on the sex determination of the head of the family:
There are two types based on this str ucture:
a)Matriarchal Family -
b) Patriarchal Family -
1)Number of members in the family: Details of this structure is
as follows: -
a)Joint Family System -As agriculture is the main occupation of
the rural areas joint family system has beco me a special feature of
rural life. As maximum labour was necessary for agricultural
operations and to fulfill this need there was no other alternative
than the joint family system. It is said that joint family system is “
favourable for human life.” The concept of joint family system will
be clear from the following definitions: -
1) Dr. Iravati Karve: Joint family is a group of people which lives
under one roof, consume the food prepared at one fire
place(Chula).The property is of the whole family, p articipate in the
rites and rituals performed by the family and are related to each
other by a specific relation.munotes.in
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512) Dr M.N.Shrinivas: Joint family includes husband and wife, their
married children ,their children and the young girls to be married or
who have not married.
There are two types in joint families based on Race and
Brotherhood. The racial family includes grandmother -grandfather,
mother -father and their grand daughters and grand sons. The
brotherhood family includes married brothers and the ir families.
Other than this a joint family also includes widows, abandoned
wives, or aunts and their children.
A)Features of Joint Family System -
The Head of the Family or The Doer -
The head of the joint family is called the doer. Father in a
patriarchal family and mother in the matriarchal family is the head
of the family. The head of the family exercises con trol over the
family by maintaining discipline and observing rules and
regulations. He takes decision regarding the labour division in the
family and welfare of the family members. He has a high status in
the family.
Common Fire Place -
In joint family s ystem food for everyone is cooked in
common kitchen. Therefore Dr. Iravati Karve and Shri S.C.Dube
has accepted the feature of common kitchen. There are no different
kitchens for different families in a joint family. Food is cooked in
common kitchen and co mmon fire place.
Common Place of Dwelling -
In a joint family all the members stay under one roof. As a
result we can see common kitchen, common place of eating food,
common property. Living in one place creates an emotional feeling
and togetherness.
Common Property -
In a joint family everyone has the ownership on the ancestral
property whether it is movable or immovable property. Every
member has the right to enjoy the benefits of the property. Every
individual works to put an additional income in th ep r o p e r t y .T h e
head of the family has special rights to property. Family is looked
upon as the trustee of the property. The feature of this family
system is that it fulfills the needs of the family members and giving
financial security to the members.
Common Adoration & Worship -
Because of religious worships and adorations an emotional
bonding is created between the family members. In a joint family
during festivals, ceremonies and functions also worship -adoration
of god is done along with day to day worship of god. They have amunotes.in
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52common deity and is worshipped with great devotion and faith.
Emotional unity and a sense of responsibility is developed through
worship.
Big Size -
Dr Desai says, “Joint family includes members of more than
three generations. ” and Iravati Karve says, “Joint family is a group
of relatives.” As the number of members in the family is more it is
big in size.
Joint family system in rural societies proves to be beneficial.
Child rearing is done very easily and effectively in a joi nt family
system. During emergency members are protected and showed
proper direction to develop a good citizen.
Check your progress
Q-Give the types of family system and state their features.
B) Nuclear Family:
There was a change in the ru ral economy at a faster rate.
Due to industrialization, urbanization, and modernization joint family
system came to an end to a great extent and nuclear family system
came into existence. Nuclear family is small in size and limited to
husband, wife and the ir children. As both are working, they share
the responsibility of the house. Individual development is achieved
as they have the freedom to think and take decisions.
Features of Nuclear Family System:
Good Family Relations:
The number of members in the family is limited , so the
relations are very close among the family members. They have the
feeling of love, affection and affinity towards each other. As the
members are less they don’t hate or envy each other.
Financial independence:
In a joint fa mily system the principle of common property and
usage is there the members don’t have the freedom to use it
individually. But in nuclear family they are independent of using the
money. Income source and income, utilization, savings etc are at
the personal level. An individual can spend the earned income on
his family itself. Therefore that individual is satisfied. They work
hard to raise the income level.munotes.in
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53Personality Development:
In a nuclear family an individual has a choice to choose
education of his liking and progress through it. He can participate in
the fields like arts and sports. As an individual has freedom of
taking decisions he can develop his personality.
Limited in Size:
Nuclear family is small in size. As there are no child
marriages and due to extended age limit of marriage the process of
procreation or the time of procreation has decreased. A family size
is based on the families income. The concept of “Small Family
Happy Family” is accepted the number of children is less in this
type of families.
2) Based on the sex determination of the head of the family -
Based on families formal power, dwelling information of the
patriarchal and matriarchal families is as follows: -
A) Patriarchal Family -
In this system all the powers rest with the father. Wife goes
to stay with husband in his house and becomes a part of his
lineage. The genealogical table continues from the husbands side.
The elder child inherits the property from his father. In this family
system women folk is given secondary s tatus or very less
importance. Male plays an important part in the income generation
process, while the female has to look only after the kitchen and
children. Indian society is dominated with the patriarchal family
system. Father has total control over th e family. Even the relatives
of mother are given less importance.
B) Matriarchal Family -
In this system the women has control over the family. The
family is recognized by the lineage of the woman. The daughter
inherits the property from her mother. In this system the husband
goes to stay at his wife’s house. The husband’s participation in the
income earning process is negligible. Father has less importance in
the family. All the power resides with mother only. Family’s
genealogical table continues from the mother’s side. Matriarchal
family system is seen in the Nair’s in the south and a few scheduled
tribes. The relatives of father are given less importance.
The reason behind the matriarchal family system is given
that they have to keep the race in the pure form also stop the
transfer of property etc. But in the modern age this system does not
have much importance.munotes.in
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54Check your progress
Q-Give the information regarding the nuclear ,matriarchal and
patriarchal family system.
4.3.4 Functi ons of the Family
The family system has great importance in the human
society. Due to family system the society has gained stability. Even
though changes are taking place in the functions of the family
system, there is no change in the basic structure of t he family.
Functions of the family can be given as follows: -
1) Families important function of production -
a) Sex -
Having sexual satisfaction is one of the important need of
the human race.
This is fulfilled through the family. This relationship is
accepted by the society. Therefore this family institution is said to
be based on sexual relationship.
b) Procreation -
This is another important function of the family system.
Procreation takes place in the families based on sexual
relationship. For so cial stability and existence of the society this is
an important aspect.
c) Child rearing -
If the work was limited only to procreation then the family
system would not have gained much importance. Along with
procreation family performs another importan tf u n c t i o no fc h i l d
rearing and child caring. Child is dependent on elders for a longer
period so the entire family and other relatives take care of the child
from his childhood till he becomes independent.
Psychological function -
An individual gets sa tisfaction and protection in the family.
Because of love and respect for each other he gets mental
satisfaction. In a family process of humanism is generated due to
the traditions, culture and practices. Personal development is
possible in a family only. A physical and mentally weak person gets
protection in the family. He gets strength to face any situation in life.
As a result an individual can lead a well settled life.munotes.in
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55Socialization -
Children are introduced to traditions, customs and basic
moral values. A child is given lessons of mental, social and
linguistic skills which are important for personal development which
help them to be successful in life. A feeling of hope and desire is
created so that he can lead a hopeful life and be an important
constituent of the society. Family controls the important social
incidents of an individual. Social culture is transferred from one
generation to another because of family only.
Finance funct ion-
Finance function is important function to fulfill the basic
needs of the members in the family. Since ancient period the
finance function of the family institution is continuing non stop.
Agriculture is the center of income generation. Before
indust rialization the family institution was self sufficient in case of
finance. Occupational education and income generation and such
other things are learnt in the family itself.
Entertainment -
Due to lack of transport and communication ancient villages
were separated. As a result they lacked alternative resources and
means of entertainment. Entertainment is an individual’s social
necessity, so it is fulfilled from the rural family. This need was
fulfilled through small incidents like telling stories, sing ing songs,
playing different games, imitating each other, sharing experiences
of the elderly people.
Rural family institution performs the above mentioned
function. This shows the place of family institution in human life.
Overall development of an indi vidual and the process of humanism
is possible because of family only. Even though there are changes
in the family structure nowadays, still family institution is still
important.
Check your progress
Q-Give the characteristic features of family institu tion.
4.3.5 Changes in the family institution
Ancient Indian rural family system was based on specific
economic situation and occupation. In the middle of 19 th century
because of industrialization a drastic change came in the ruralmunotes.in
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56family system. There was a change in the financial status. Joint
family disintegrated and nuclear families came into existence.
Along with the change in the family size , there was a change in the
family structure and functions also. The factors responsible for this
change are as follows: -
1) Industrialization -
Due to i ndustrialization the traditional occupations were
destroyed as a result people started migrating towards cities in
search of jobs. In industries in the urban areas people started
getting employment and the labour paid to them was high. So the
rural familie s started migrating to cities. Joint family system
disintegrated due to factors like space to live in, rising expenditure,
freedom of an individual.
2) Effect of Westernization -
Because of industrialization -urbanization and modernization
took place at a faster rate. Society had an effect of westernization.
Even the rural society was affected. Due to an individual’s freedom
the self -centered tendency developed. Preference was given to
materialistic happiness. Features like sacrifice, fulfilling the duti es,
and co -operation started to disintegrate. It was due to
westernization the joint family system was disintegrated.
3)Women’s Education -
In the rural areas the jurisdiction of woman was limited to
kitchen and children. She didn’t have any status in the family. After
independence the thought of women education spread. There was
a change in her work. She stepped out of the circle of tradition and
culture. She started to progress by working equally with the males
to earn money. As a result she could par ticipate in the decision
making process. She took the decision regarding the size of the
family. Women education made lots of changes in the family
system.
4)Occupational Dynamism -
Every individual’s occupation was fixed in the olden rural
family syst em. Individual had no freedom to choose his own
occupation. Family was related to agriculture and house hold
industries. Occupational dynamism got its mobility because of
industrialization, equality and freedom, urbanization and education.
5)Urbanizati on-
In the ancient rural families all the needs of an individual
were fulfilled in the family itself. Due to urbanization there was a
change in the functions or working of the rural families. The needs,
were fulfilled in a family, but nowadays to fulfill these needs in a
better way many individual institutions are created.munotes.in
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576)Self centered thought -
In a joint family the head of he joint family controlled the
family. Uniformity was seen in the family. But in the modern times
self-centered thoughts for s elf-benefit started emerging in the minds
of people. The feeling of affection towards the family started
decreasing. As the individuals got equal chance in education and
service self -centered nature was nurtured and families started
disintegrating.
7)Social Change and Rules -
Due to social changes joint families responsibilities were
minimized due to the establishment of educational institutions,
Occupational training institutes, child caring centers, entertainment
sources. Rules like inheritance of pr operty, child marriage act,
widow remarriage act came into existence. Share in the property
was possible through law. Now the people did not feel the need of
staying together. Rules like life insurance, pension after retirement
of service for social securi ty were made so that the families
individual responsibility was minimized and this paved the way for
disintegration of family.
In the process of urbanization there were changes in the
rural society life and also in the rural families. The head of the
family lost his importance due to individualism, personal freedom,
ambition gained importance. There was a split in living together.
The bond of deep affection started to loosen. Distribution of
property started .Due to different occupations individual’s
ambi tions, aspirations increased. Individual families started
migrating in the cities taking their property share. As a result Indian
rural families started disintegrating.
Check your progress
Q-Discuss the factors responsible for the changes in the famil y
institutions.
4.4 SUMMARY
Institutions are studied in social science by considering the
framework of rules. From the point of view of fulfilling the basic
needs institutions are very important. Study of every individualmunotes.in
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58institution its meani ng, features, and functions is mainly done in
these institutes. When studied in detail we know the importance of
these institutions. In the social institutes family institute has existed
from ancient period. Its nature is different in the scheduled tribes,
urban and rural community. Joint family and nuclear family are two
types of families.
Matriarchal and patriarchal families are seen in the society.
Family institution emerges from the marriage. Social stability is
preserved because of families. Changes in the family institution
came because of industrialization, urbanization, spread of literacy,
freedom to choose occupation, and individualism.
4.5 SELF STUDY
Give the meaning of social institutions and state their different
types.
State the differen t functions of social institutions.
State the functions of family.
Write in detail the types of families.
Write short notes on.
Importance of social institutions
Changes in the family institutions
Importance of family institutions
Joint family syste m
References:
C.H. Shah, Orient Longman, Mumbai, 1991 -“ Agricultural
Development in India : Policy and Problem”.
Mishra S. K. & Puri V. K., Himalaya Publishing House, New
Delhi, 2006 -“ Development Issues of Indian Economics”.
Reddy K. Venkata H imalaya Publishing House, 2001 -“
Agriculture and Rural Development -A Gandhian Perspective”.
G. Rajnikanth & R. R. Prasad, Discovery Publishing House,
New Delhi, 2006 -“ Rural Development and Social Change”.
www.inflibnet.ac.inHYPERLINK "http://www.inflibnet.ac.in/"
munotes.in
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595
RURAL SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS -
CASTE SYSTEM AND CLASS
STRUCTURE
Dr. Pravin T. Sanaye
Unit Structure :
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Caste structure
5.2.1 Definitions of caste
5.2.2 Characteristics of caste
5.2.3 Importa nce of caste
5.2.4 Functions of the Caste
5.2.5 Demerits of caste institution
5.2.6 Changes in the Caste System
5.3 Rural class structure
5.3.1 Nature of class
5.3.2 Characteristics of Class System
5.3.3 Difference between caste and class
5.3.4 Class Structure in Rural Society
5.4 Factors of Transformation of Caste into Class in Rural
Society
5.5 Summary
5.6 Self study
5.0 OBJECTIVES
To analyze the caste structure.
Will come to know the rural class structure.
Can understand the reasons behind the change in the cas te and
class structure.
5.1 Introduction
Indian society is divided into small and big groups because
of caste. Caste is a unique feature of Indian society. Caste system
is comprehensive and basic institution. Indian society is divided intomunotes.in
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60upper class and lower class. Caste controls all the social factors of
an individual from his birth till death. Caste principle’s regulates or
controls the economic life, social life, and religious behaviour of the
society. It has given shape to the Indian society. So me diligent
people have expressed their views on caste.
They are as follows: -
Racial discrimination prevailed during the Veda period also.
In Rig -Veda while describing a male in a certain Vedic hymn it is
said that Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and S hudras were formed
from the face, hands, thighs and legs of lord Brahma respectively.
In the same way a person could get membership of other Varna’s
based on his quality and destiny. Birth was not the base of
membership. Untouchability also could not be se en.
In the post Vedic period Brahmins started performing
yagnya. They got higher class status along with the right of doing
religious work. Kshatriyas had the responsibility of defense,
Vaishyas had the responsibility of food grain production and trade.
The ignoble were included in the Shudras. Today there are more
than 3000 caste and sub castes in India. The status of an individual
is based on caste structure and class structure also is based on
caste. Caste plays an important role in the personal life of an
individual. Therefore to understand the Indian society it is
necessary to study the features of caste system and the working of
the caste system.
5.2 CASTE SYSTEM
The word caste has emerged from the Portuguese word
‘Casta ’and Latin word ‘Castus ’. It means the group by birth and the
group by race.
Social scientist have given different definitions of caste. They
are as follows.
5.2.1 Definitions of caste
1) Muzumdar and Madan:
“Caste is a closed class.”
2) Charles kule:
“A race based on class is a caste.”
3) Mac Iver and page:
“When a status is pre -decided and there can be no change
in the status acquired by destiny, then the rigid class structure
formed is called a caste.munotes.in
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614)M.N. Srinivas:
Caste is a racial group residing in local areas. They have
their own traditional occupation. Caste occupies a special place in
the local and social circle. In this system an individual is born in a
specific caste and as per the caste he gets the status and
accordingly he has to play his role.
5)Dr.Babasaheb Ambedkar:
“Inter -caste marriages have maintained the caste as it is for
centuries.”
6) Dr .Iravati Karve:
“A family or group acquiring one common name together is a
caste and caste means expanded family.”
From the above definitions i t is clear that the status of an
individual, occupation, selecting the marriage partner are fixed by
birth and no one had the freedom to change it. Caste system
decided the life style, dress, food, and dignity an individual. Till
today caste system is very strong in rural areas. Individuals life is
controlled by the cast.
The caste system is not clarified only by the definitions.
Therefore Hatton, N.K.Datt, and Dr. Ghurye has put forward some
characteristics of caste. They are as follows: -
5.2.2 Chara cteristics of caste :
1) Division of society in sections:
Because of caste system society is divided into many
sections. This created a difference in the occupational pattern,
culture and tradition due to which each section or group had its own
identity. Every caste had its own identity and lifestyle. Social
scientist have defined them as cultural group as the tradition was
passed from one group to another group. The caste Panchayat was
created to maintain its unique features. This resulted in more
bonding of the caste groups. Sub -caste were created from the main
caste which later on became a separate caste group. Therefore
Dr.Ghurye has said that society has been divided into small and
large groups.
Superior and Inferior:
Caste system is like a declivi ty. It is narrow at the top and
broad at the bottom. In the higher or superior class the members in
the family is less but in the middle and low caste or inferior class
the number of the family members is more. Superior class has the
power in their hands a nd they also enjoy the privilege of special
rights. Different caste groups with different works came into
existence -the Brahmins were supposed to do the work of learning
and teaching, the security part rested with the kshatriyas and themunotes.in
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62trade and commerc e was done by the vaishyas and the remaining
services were given to the shudras. Caste was determined by birth
so it was not possible to change the status acquired by an
individual acquired by birth.
Rules regarding Marriage:
Caste is considered as an inter marital group. Restrictions
have been put up on marriage by the caste. An individual by rule of
the caste has to marry in the caste itself. If he marries outside the
caste he and his family was boycotted from the caste. Preserving
the superiority of the caste was the motive behind this rule. Caste
has preserved its purity and superiority by marrying in the caste
itself and by restricting the marriages outside the caste they tried to
stop the formation of sub -caste. Because of the inter -caste
marriage every group preserved its identity.
Restrictions on the selecting the trade or business:
Every caste had its own fixed trade. Business was a matter
of tradition so they were restricted to do the same business as per
tradition of the group. An individu al had no freedom to choose the
business of his liking or the art which he had. The status of an
individual depended on the type of work or business he did. As the
caste system is decided in the descending order the trade done by
the superior class was of the superior quality. The caste got its
name from the trade they were practicing and the skill was
maintained up to the caste only and its secrecy was maintained.
Agriculture and the enrolment in the army was free for all. But
mostly there was no change in the trade or occupation. As a result
the person got financial security by the business or occupation.
Restrictions on Social Relations:
Caste has totally controlled an individual’s whole life. There
were strict restrictions on the social relations. T he shadow or touch
of an inferior caste was forbidden. There were limitations on the
person’s behaviour or thinking. Food and water was also not
allowed to be taken from an inferior caste person. These rules were
strictly followed. The lower caste group ha d to keep some distance
while speaking to a Brahmin.
Social and Religious Restrictions:
As per the descending order of the caste structure they gain
their status in the society. Because of this the inferior or the lower
class were forbidden from the so cial and religious rights. There
were strict restrictions on their food, clothing, where to live in the
village. It was a rule that the lower class people should stay outside
the village only. They were not allowed to take water from the
village well. They had tie a broom to their waist to clean the path
they used or they had to keep a horn along with them.munotes.in
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63The lower class people were not allowed to do any religious
rites or learn any Vedas or religious books. The Brahmins got
protection from the kings bec ause of their superiority.
Because of these characteristics caste system had great
importance in the Indian social life. There were changes in this
system as the years passed by.
Check your progress
Q-Give the characteristic features of the caste.
5.2.3 Importance of caste :
Caste system is one of the most important social institution
of the Indian society. Caste system has done very important job to
preserve the Indian culture for a longer period. Importance of caste
can be understood from the following points.
1) Caste is the main pillar of the Indian social institution. On the
basis of caste only the grading of high and low caste and
accordingly their status in the society is decided.
2) Even though the grading was done on the b asis of caste still co -
operation or helping each other was the main thing. So the owners
used to help their workers from the lower class in one or the other
form or financial help.
3) As the caste institution had fixed the occupational pattern every
individual had a fixed work so that there was no unemployment.
There was no competition in any of the occupations like the present
age.
4) Inter -caste marriage system prevailed because of the caste
system. Caste is also called inter marriage group. This has
preserved the race and traditional cultures and qualities of the
specific group.
5) Because of the specialization of the labour in the caste system
the traditional occupational skills could be preserved.munotes.in
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646) Because of the caste institution only th e rural culture could
create stable moral values which were preserved and are still being
followed.
7) Every caste needs other castes help so they used to give shelter
to each other. By service and co -operation they developed a feeling
of social unity a nd compassion for each other.
8) Discipline and unity remained forever in the caste because of the
strict rules and restrictions of the caste institution.
Check your progress
Q-Importance of caste institution.
5.2.4 Functions of the Caste
Because of the caste system only the social structure of the
society remained stable and strong for centuries. An individual’s
social status is recognized by his caste and his work. According to
Hutton caste control an individual’s life from his birth t ill death.
Caste has created a coordinated social structure. An individual’s life
is shaped by the caste only. Functions of the caste institutions are
as follows: -
1) Financial functions -
A)Ease and Assurance of Occupation:
Every caste had its own f ixed occupation. The training of the
traditional occupations was given in the family itself. Because of the
assurance of job there was no competition amongst themselves nor
there was the problem of unemployment. Caste had created
financial stability in the society.
B)Division of Labour:
An individual got the occupational training in the family itself.
By practice they acquired great skills in that particular occupation.
As the occupations were fixed automatically there was a division of
labour. The di vision of labour system was working very effectively
because every individual did the work assigned to him. Balutedari is
one of the best example of division of labour.
C)Social and Financial Security:
Due to job assurance they did not face with the p roblem of
unemployment. Caste was termed as an occupational group. Asmunotes.in
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65the occupation was passed on from one generation to another the
people enjoyed the benefit of social and financial security. Social
status of an individual was based on the caste. The fe elings of
hatred and jealousy were not there as they had no freedom to
change the caste and occupation.
Caste institution is termed as social insurance. Due to
traditional occupations an individual gets social and financial
security even in the crisis of becoming physically handicapped, ill or
in the old age.
2) Social Functions of the Caste
A) Assurance of social status -
Superiority and inferiority are the features of the caste.
Social status is fixed by the caste. As the caste of an individual is
based on the birth his social status is decided by caste and not by
the situation.
B) Support of Marriage Institution -
An individual had to marry in the same caste as they had no
permission to marry outside the caste. Inter -caste marriages were
forbid den by the society. Therefore it is said that caste is the basis
or support of marriage institution. This rules are followed not only in
the but sub -caste also.
C) Control on the Behaviour of an Individual -
An individual has to behave as per the rules made by the
caste. It is seen that caste controls the behaviour of an individual.
People not following the rules were punished severely. The society
followed these rules strictly. Caste institution used to follow
controlled functions like give and take, pr oper -improper fine to the
individual or the whole family.
D) Creating Rural Leadership -
Rural leadership is related to the caste. In the olden days
individuals political life was controlled by the caste. Villagers
accepted his decision without any obj ection. Even today caste
plays an important role in the rural political life.
E) Protecting the society and culture -
Caste institution protected the society and culture. Caste
institutions remained intact in India though it was invaded many a
times. T hey were not destroyed as time passed away. Small groups
were bonded together because of caste system. Caste institution
works as a protective cover for the society. Because of social
function a specific structure of work was created. In the same way
an in dividual’s status and his place in the society was decided by
the caste.munotes.in
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663) Function of the caste for the community
1) Protecting the religious feelings -
Every caste has its own established observances of the
family and it is observed by the individu als. Religious feelings are
developed from this observances. Basic moral values are
preserved and an individual becomes good natured. This is passed
from one generation to another. Caste has preserved the religion.
2)Preserving the Race -
Inter-caste marriage rule is followed strictly. Because of
inter-caste marriage blood relation are preserved and a good
society is emerged.
3)Occupational Skills -
Caste preserved its occupational skill. The skill was passed
to the future generation. Similar occupa tion with similar rules bring
about an unity in the caste.
Because of the caste system an individual gets mental
security and society gets stability.
Check your progress
Q-Explain the working of caste institution.
5.2.5 Demerits of caste institution :
Caste institution has played an important role in the in the
social and financial structure. As time passed by there were many
changes in the caste institutions. But there were certain demerits
also.
They are as follows.
1) Demerits cre ated from the financial point of view
A) Harmful for working alertness -
Even though the people had skill of other occupations, they
could not practice other castes occupation as the castes had fixed
occupation. It means the caste system and its rules were
hindrances in the working. Restrictions on choosing the occupation
was one of the greatest demerit of the caste system.munotes.in
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67B) Harmful for financial development -
Because of caste system feeling of community development
disappears from the minds of the people. The only thought they
have in their minds is to develop their own caste, do something for
the well being of their own community in the caste. It means the
rules and the regulations in the caste are the obstacles in the
working efficiency of the peo ple. The main demerit of this was that
they had no freedom to choose their occupation.
C) Unequal distribution of money and labour -
Because of the caste system the lower caste group was
allotted the more laborious work, but in return they would get ve ry
less income. The higher caste people got less tedious but more
income earning jobs. For ex -the family priest, one who has studied
shastras, one who gives discourse rule over and exploit the inferior
class people. The result was that the inferior class found it difficult
to fulfill their basic needs.
2) Social Demerits
A) Domination of the superior class -
The main demerit of the caste system was that the superior
class started dominating and exploiting the inferior class. The lower
class had to do the laborious work. Due to this corruption, adultery,
and economical exploitation increased.
B) Increase in Untouchability -
Caste system lead to the problem of Untouchability. In Hindu
religion few caste recognize themselves as superior caste while
others are considered as inferior class. Superior class have
exploited the Scheduled class people by putting restrictions on
them. As a result the Hindu religion was divided into touchable and
untouchables and there were clashes amongst them.
C) Underde veloped personality of an Individual -
Every individual was dominated by the caste which
compelled him to continue his traditional occupation. The education
system, marriage institution was also controlled by the caste
system.
These restrictions were hin drances for an individuals all -
round development and ability.
D) Encouragement to accept a new religion -
Due to caste system the inferior group had been deprived of
their rights for a long time. The higher class started exploiting the
lower class. One who disobeyed the caste rules were asked to pay
the penalty, were punished or boycotted from the caste. This
resulted in an ill faith in the religion by the lower class group.munotes.in
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68People from other religion took benefit of it and started converting
the people on a large scale.
E) Harmful for the Social Unity -
Caste system divided the society into many groups. Groups
were divided into higher class and lower class, and a hatredness
towards the lower class was developed. This was harmful to the
social unity.
3) Other Common Demerits
A) Harmful to the Cultural Unity -
A feeling of superiority and inferiority developed amongst the
people. Give and take of things became impossible amongst each
other. Every caste wanted to be different from others which resulte d
in the hatredness. Therefore even though the culture of the society
was same, the cultural unity could not be seen.
B) Harmful to the Nation -
Clashes amongst the different caste increased because of
the formation of the sub -castes. A feeling of hatre dness developed
amongst the higher caste. They started demanding for their rights.
This was supported by the political leaders, and this proved to be
harmful to the national integrity.
C) Clashes amongst the castes -
Because of the unequal distribution of castes there was an
increase in the feeling of hatredness and clashes among the
different castes. A particular came very close to each other while
the other caste were ill -treated. Partiality and obstinacy developed
for their own caste group without th inking of justice or injustice on
the other caste.
The above demerits are found in the caste system. In
modern times it is seen that we cannot see casteism but caste
distinction still is on the increase.
Check your progress
Q-Give the demerits of c aste system.munotes.in
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695.2.6 Changes in the Caste System
Indian caste system has remained stable for thousands of
years due to its strong base. But due to science and technology in
the modern age some changes are seen in the caste system.
Transport an d communication has brought mobility in the Indian
society. Changes in the caste institution took place at a faster rate.
Following are the reasons for this change.
Industrialization:
Industrialization brought about a change in the caste system.
It isseen that people from many caste and religion work together in
a factory which results in the formation of a group of class. The
feeling of superiority and inferiority is totally forgotten and the rules
regarding food and other aspects has to be kept aside . This results
in the change in the caste system.
Urbanization:
In ancient India the handicraft industries was the main
source of income and there was great demands for these goods.
But due to industrialization process during the British period there
was a decline of handicrafts industries. Big cities were developed
and people migrated to these cities in search of work. As the
population in these cities increased people had to live in a
congested area. Due to this it was difficult to follow the rules o f the
caste. Marketing system, entertainment sources, hotels brought
about restrictions on the caste rules and regulations and as a result
there was a change in the caste system.
Education:
In the modern age people from all categories got opportunity
to get education. Narrow mindedness was eliminated from the
minds of the people. They adopted new modern thinking. Students
from all caste were studying together under one roof due to which
the caste distinction lagged behind. Being educated even the
peopl e from inferior caste could gain higher position in the offices
and could extend their contacts due to which again caste distinction
was eliminated from the society.
Increasing effect of Class Structure:
Because of industrialization traditional occupa tions started to
come to an end. People migrated to cities in search of jobs. The
class structure was more effective in the cities than the caste
structure so people left their traditional occupations and started
doing other than the jobs they were doing t oe a r nm o n e ya n d
earned status in the society according to their income in the
society. Class structure brought a change in the caste system of
the society.munotes.in
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70New Laws:
Occupation and social status was controlled by the caste
system. After independence constitution adopted the principle of
equality. People were independent of adopting any type of
occupation. By law everyone had to follow the same rules and
regulations. This resulted in a real change in the caste system.
It is very clear that above fa ctors have brought changes in
the caste system. In the ancient and medieval period caste system
has played an important role in the society. Even though there are
changes in the caste system rural society and its system is still
based on the caste system.
Check your progress
Q-Factors responsible for the change in the caste system.
5.3 RURAL CLASS STRUCTURE
After studying the definitions and features of the caste
system it is clear that Indian class structure was based on caste
system. Th is type of society structure is unique. It doesn’t mean
that there is no class structure in the society and culture in other
parts of the world. Open grading and close grading are the two
types of social grading. Race, caste, social status come under
close d grading while distribution through class system comes under
open grading. An individual’s social status was decided and known
by his deeds only after industrialization, individuals education,
income, social status by the end of 19th century. This was the
period when class structure emerged in the real sense. Group of
people having equal status is called a class. This class have the
same behaviour basic values and income level is equal. Compared
to other classes one is superior while other is inferior. Each class
tries to maintain its status and level.
5.3.1 Nature of class
The nature and difference of the class structure can be
understood from the definitions given by the social scientists.munotes.in
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71Mac Iver and page : “Social class is that group of people
which is characterized by social status and is distinguished very
easily from the other class.”
Augburn Nimkoff: “Basic characteristic of the social class is that
one social class as per its social status is either superior or infer ior.”
Ginsberg: “Class is such a group of people which has common
lifestyle, common thinking, common feelings and tendency based
on common inheritance, wealth, education and occupation and this
or the other reasons this members come together and consider
each other of the same community.
From the above definitions some characteristics are
understood.
5.3.2 Characteristics of Class System
1) Feeling of Superiority -Inferiority:
Every society has many groups and people having equal
status are in a gro up and they compare themselves to the other
groups and decide for themselves whether he is superior or inferior.
In class system superiority or inferiority is very dominant. Because
of this feeling they are different from other classes. Every class has
affection for its own class. Superior class people have higher status
and inferior class people have secondary status.
2) Birth is not the criteria for class:
Though birth decides the caste of an individual his class is
not decided by birth. In class sys tem an individual’s social status
depends on his capacity matters and not birth. Because of an
individual’s capacity he can see himself in the higher -class
category. There is mobility in the class structure. So an individual
from the inferior class can rea ch the higher -class category on his
own if he has the capability, while an individual from the higher
class can come to the lower class category because of his deeds.
So we can say birth is not the criteria for class but the social and
financial status.
3) Instability of the class:
According to Ginsberg the pillars of class structure are
education, occupation and wealth. As these factors are changeable
class is an unstable group. The reason is that an individual’s
education and economic conditions can c hange, which results a
change in his status. Rich people can either become very rich or
poor while poor people can become rich or can come in the
category of middle class earning people.
Limited Social Relations:
In a class there is a feeling of superi ority and inferiority.
Individual has affection for his class. As a result he has limitedmunotes.in
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72relations with the other class in the society. People from the same
class are invited for the social and cultural functions. The feeling
behind this is that we are di fferent from others.
A Well Designed Lifestyle:
Level of the people having same income group is at the
same level. Their way of living is the same. For ex -their residence,
clothing pattern, food, children’s education, likes -dislikes. An
individual tr ies to maintain Marital relations and Business relations
in their respective class only. As a result classes have a specific
framework of lifestyle.
Check your progress
Q-Explain the characteristic features of class structure.
5.3.3 Differe nce between caste and class
Difference in the caste and class structure is seen in its
definitions only. The social class which, has birth as its base is
termed as caste. While the social class having common status is
termed as caste. Caste and class are the two types of social
standardization. There are basic differences in these two types.
1) Caste is the unique feature of Indian society and its membership
is acquired by birth, while class system is seen everywhere and its
membership is acquired by an individual’s capability.
2) An individual cannot change his caste. Caste is not based on
economic condition but related to religious factor. But everyone has
the right to change to change his class. Class is based on
economic conditions and is free from religious bias.
3) There are restrictions on inter -caste marriage and traditional
occupations in the caste, while in the class structure there are
restrictions on the marriage institution. In the same way an
individual can choose his an occupation of his choice.
4) There are restrictions on the marriages amongst each other and
they lack mobility is its feature. There are no restrictions in the
marriages amongst each other and mobility is the feature of class.munotes.in
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735) The caste Panchayat has total control ov er the caste. Caste
comes under closed standardization while there is no such
standardization in the class structure.
From the above differences it is clear that caste is acquired
by birth and class gives importance to self ability. The above
features o f caste are becoming extinct, due to which the basis of
caste have disappeared.
Check your progress
Q-Distinguish between caste and class.
5.3.4 Class Structure in Rural Society
Though the caste controls the Indian rural society we can’t
say it as a classless society.
In the rural society the economic conditions and status is not
equal. In the same way every class has its own lifestyle, traditions
and customs. Accordingly everyone behaves in the society. In the
rural society relationship depends on the superiority and inferiority
of the individuals. Because the lifestyle, traditions and cultures,
afflictions are same of the people in the same class. That is the
reason why they are more attached to their class.
Before the Britishers came Indian society was self -sufficient
and independent. The caste and family institution dominated rural
society. In the British period the self -sufficiency of the villages was
destroyed. Because of industrialization rural society also started
experiencing ch ange. It affected the social strata. But in this
transformation process the main occupation of the society
remained the same that was agriculture. As seen in the urban
society the class discrimination i.e. higher class, medium and the
lower class, is seen in the rural society. But the rural stratification is
based on agriculture. Following classes are seen in the rural
society.
1)Zamindars and the Big Land Holders:
Zamindars and the big land holder’s come in the category of
the rich and well to do clas s. This category owns more than 5o
acres of land though they are few in number i.e. just 1% of the rural
society. They dominate the fields like politics, economics andmunotes.in
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74social. This class has the power in its hands and also is rich and
has status in the soc iety. This society leads a modern lifestyle and
enjoys the benefits of all the urbanized modern facilities to a great
extent. Some of the Zamindars are heirs of the Watandars and
Inamdars of the medieval period. After independence the
government made land ceiling act to remove the inequality of the
distribution of land. But due to the loopholes in the laws it made the
Zamindars possible to keep maximum land under their control
resulting in the inequality of distribution of wealth in the rural
society.
2)Money Lenders and Traders:
Money lenders and traders are dominant in the rural society.
Money lenders lend money in return to the land kept as pledge.
Rural society depends on this type of money lending or loan as
they get it on demand. To repay the loan the farmers have to sell
their produce to the money lender. The money lenders purchase
the produce from the farmers at a low rate and sell it to others at a
very high price. As a result the picture seen in the rural society is of
rich money lenders and poo r farmers. The traders lend the money
to the farmers before the harvesting season. So after the harvest
farmers have to sell the produce to the traders only at the price he
gives for the produce. A new class of money lenders and traders is
dominating the r ural society.
3) Medium Land Holders:
A Farmer having a land holding of more than 5 acres comes
under this category. Around 50 -55% farmers come under this
category. Farming is not beneficial as more of the land is dry due to
lack of irrigation faciliti es. The agricultural production of these
farmers is less than the big land holders. Even though they don’t
get more economical benefit from this occupation but their condition
is well to do.
4) Small Farmers:
A Farmer having a land holding of less than 5a c r e si s
included in this category. Most of the farmers have a land holding of
one acre or less than that. Less income is generated with the
minimum land holding. As a result it is very difficult to fulfill the
basic needs of the family. Therefore they don’t have any alternative
than to take loan from the money lenders. The economical
condition of this category is not so good, so many a times they
have to work as labourers in others fields. They have an inferior
status in the agricultural occupation. Ind ebtedness is seen more in
this category.
5) Landless Labourers:
This is the last category of the rural class structure.
Percentage of landless agricultural labourers is the highest in themunotes.in
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75rural areas. As they don’t own land they have to work on the oth er
people’s farms. Some of labourers work at the Zamindars place
permanently, while some work temporarily. Labourers working
permanently live in a very bad condition or else we can say they
live in poverty. Their status is of like a labourer who is compell ed to
labour without any remuneration. Temporary labourers condition
also is not so good but it is much better than the permanent
labourers. Temporary labourers have independence to choose the
work. In rural areas the agricultural labourers have work only in the
season. In the drought and famines conditions they don’t have work
during the season also. As a result their condition deteriorates
further. Their status in the society is of very low class. Ignorance,
illiteracy, unemployment and lack of proper and nutrition are the
characteristics of the landless agricultural labourers and are mainly
found in the rural areas.
The caste structure is more powerful than the class structure
in the rural areas. The caste system dominates the class system.
This is the reason why we find that the higher class people are of
superior caste, while lower class people are of inferior class.
Check your progress
Q-Explain the class structure in the rural society.
5.4 FACTORS OF TRANSFORMATION OF CASTE
INTO CLAS S IN RURAL SOCIETY
(1) Government policy -
According to Breeman it is the policy of government to
pauperise the agricultural labour. The green revolution, white
revolution, irrigation and electric supply have gone mostly in favour
of the big farmers. In f act, the benefits of development programmes
have been largely cornered by the big landowners. It is due to the
government policy that agricultural capitalism has increased.
Breman also says that the nationalist movement before
independence and the heading political parties have also promoted
agricultural capitalism.munotes.in
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76(2) Correlation between caste and class:
Rural caste and class have been analysed from both
Weberian and Marxian perspectives. But if one tries to apply only
Marxian perspective to unders tand the class structure, he cannot
do so successfully. Caste and class are a mixed phenomenon in
India’s rural society. Gail Omvedt argues that there are feudal
forces in caste and as a result of it the former landlords, zamindars
and jagirdars have co me out as capitalist peasants. It means that
the former higher castes have become today higher classes.
Despite this difference in findings which is of degree, the fact
remains that rural castes are definitely transforming into classes.
Another differen ce is that Omvedt considers caste as a feudal
organisation and its change into class is capitalistic.
(3) Dominant castes replaced:
It was in sixties that M.N. Srinivas gave the concept of
dominant caste. But, it has lost much of its relevance today. Th eb i g
landowners, who have migrated to urban and industrial
communities, have taken to new sources of income or have been
deprived of land due to ceiling legislations.
Their dominance in the village has been weakened by
several forces. K.L. Sharma says t hat the power wielded by the
former elites such zamindars and jagirdars has decayed because of
the abolition of feudal system.
On the other hand, members of the weaker sections have
got new power from democratic institutions. The new empowerment
of weake r sections has brought these sections in close competition
with the former power elites. The empirical reality is that the
dominant castes have now been deprived by their traditional power
of ruling over the village or maintaining the ongoing of the rural
system. The dominant castes thus are replaced by new power
elites.
(4) Caste, land and politics make class:
Caste is not only a system of hierarchy; it is also related to
land and politics. Viewed from this perspective, the idea of a class
is also inher ent in a class. Land involves an interaction between the
landowner and the actual cultivator.
The power is also inherent to the caste. In the changing
scene, therefore, when we analyse caste, we must take into
consideration the relationship of caste hier archy, the notion of purity
and pollution in relation to land owned by a particular caste and its
power structure.munotes.in
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77When the land and power undergo change, resultantly the
caste structure also witnesses certain changes and these changes
relate to class. I n the contemporary politics of competing demands
of each caste group, naturally the caste, assumes the role of a
class.
Thus, political and economic considerations turn a caste into
ac l a s s .
Thus, both caste and class are resources for gaining access
to political power. Once political power is gained, it proves to be a
further resource for the consolidation and improvement of status
and class positions. This is how the relationship between land,
caste and politics is found in Indian villages today.
When a caste becomes a class, the class conflict which
emerges is basically caste war.
(5) Capitalist mode of production: (Turned caste into class )
Admittedly, the agricultural production in rural India has
increased tremendously during the last fifty years. Green revolution
has come. Green revolution means use of chemical fertilisers and
high yielding varieties in farm production. Actually, green revolution
coupled with the introduction of new technology have revolutionised
the mode of production in agriculture.
Advanced technology, new yielding varieties and chemical
manure can be fruitfully employed by only big farmers who have
capacity to inv est in agricultural production. This innovation in
agriculture has changed the total mode of production resulting in
the emergence of capitalism in agriculture. This form of capitalism
has changed the rural caste system into rural class system.
Analysing the shift from caste to class in agrarian society, K.L.
Sharma very rightly observes:
The capitalistic mode of production in agriculture has not
only polarised the rural class structure further in terms of the rich
and the poor, the dominant and the wea k, the upper and the lower
segments of society, their relationship with the state is also being
redefined in favour of the beneficiaries of the state’s policies and
programme.
(6) Some new emerging agricultural classes in rural India:
We have argued i n the -preceding pages about the social
formations which have transformed the caste into class. Such a
process has been enquired into by a large number of rural
sociologists and sociologists. Notwithstanding this, some of the
social scientists who have wor ked exclusively on agricultural
classes have brought out a new classification of agricultural castes.munotes.in
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78These classes do not intervene in the caste structure of rural
society. The castes work independently in the villages. In the field
of agricultural produ ction or in peasantry as a whole there are some
classes. These classes are agricultural classes. In other words,
landholdings have never been even in rural India. Differences in the
size of land have created diverse agricultural classes in rural
society.
5.5 SUMMARY
Caste system is the main pillar of the rural society. After the
conversion of Varna system into caste system there was a division
of the society into different groups. Superior and inferior structure
came into existence because of caste str ucture. The superior class
exploited the inferior class, but the social and economic functioning
of the caste system was important. Caste system gave a proper
lifestyle and shape to the society. Industrialization and spread of
education brought about great changes in the caste system. Even
though the closed structure of the caste system is outdated, still the
caste system plays an important role in the rural society up -to-date.
Class system is of the type of open structure type. Because
of the class syst em society is divided into higher, medium, lower
class groups. Class structure is based on the economic status,
education and self capability. Class has mobility due to which
circulation is possible in the society. The inferior class can reach
the status o f the superior class if he has the capacity and capability.
In rural areas class structure is based on the agricultural occupation
and land holdings. Zamindars and landlord’s, medium landholder’s,
small landholder’s, and landless agricultural labourers is the class
system found in the rural areas. There is basic difference in the
caste and class structure. Caste structure is based on closed
structure and class structure is based on open structure type.
5.6 SELF STUDY
Give the different functions of t he caste.
Give the importance of caste and its demerits.
Give detailed information of the class system of the rural
society.
Write short notes on.
Changes in the caste system
Caste and class
Features of the class structure
Nature of the classmunotes.in
Page 79
79References:
www.Shodhganga.com
www.yourarticlelibrary.com
Mishra S. K. & Puri V. K., Himalaya Publishing House, New Delhi,
2006 -“ Development Issues of Indi an Economics”.
Desai Vasant, Himalaya publishing house, Mumbai, 2005 -“Rural
Development in India -Past Present and Future”.
Rudra Dutt & K.P.m.Sundaram, S. Chand & Company, Delhi, 2000
-“Indian Economics”.
munotes.in
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806
SOCIAL CHANGE
Dr. Pravin T. Sanaye
Unit Structure :
6.0 Objective
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Prominent theories of social change
6.3 Nature of Social Change
6.4 Factors of Social Change
6.5 Obstacles in the path of Social Change
6.6 People’s Participation for Social Change
6.7 Public Opinion
6.8 Summary
6.9 Self-Study
6.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand the Concept of Social Change.
To study the Nature of social Change.
To study the Factors of Social Chang e.
To study the Obstacles in the path of Social change.
To study the People’s Participation for Social Change.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Social Change refers to an alteration in the social order of a
society. Social change may include change in nature, socia l
institution, social behaviours or social relations. Social change may
refer to the notion of social progress or socio -cultural evolution, the
philosophical idea that society moves forward by dialectical or
evolutionary means. It may refer to a paradigmat ic change in the
socio -economic structure, for instance a shift away from feudalism
towards capitalism. Accordingly it may also refer to social
revolution, such as the socialist revolution presented in Marxism, or
to other social movements, such as Women’s suffrage or the civil
rights movement. Social change may be driven by cultural,
religious, economic, scientific or technological forces. The village
social life has its own peculiar characteristics. The village social life
norms strengthen the authoritari an and hierarchical norms inmunotes.in
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81administration. The village social life, which is based on the
hierarchical exchange relations greatly influence the behavior of
civil servants in public organizations. Sociologists think that to
define Indian villages, its pop ulation, physical structure and modes
of production are definitely important. Usually, a village has less
than five thousand individuals. It is rightly said ‘India is a country of
villages’. Agriculture is the main occupation of the Indians and
majority of people in India live in the villages. Our villages help in
strengthening our social bonds and bringing stability to our society
in many ways. Our villages also help our society in another way
namely that of preserving our culture. The Indian rural society has
undergone considerable change in the recent past, particularly
since the independence as result of series of the land reform
legislations that have accelerated the pace of this change. India
has a rich cultural heritage and is a land of diversities. T he diversity
in social life is reflected in multi -social, multi -lingual, multi -religious
and multi -caste nature of the society. The important features of the
Indian social structure are predominant rural habitation in small
villages, multi -religious and mu lti-caste social identities and
important role of family in the social life. In recent years, the
communal organizations have become very active in social life
resulting in communal clashes in different parts of the country.
6.2 PROMINENT THEORIES OF SO CIAL CHANGE
Change comes from two sources. One source is random or
unique factors such as climate, weather, or the presence of specific
groups of people. Another source is systematic factors. For
example, a successful development has the same general
requirements, such as a stable and flexible government, enough
free and available resources, and a diverse social organization of
society. So, on the whole, social change is usually a combination of
systematic factors along with some random or unique factors .There
are many theories of social change. Generally, a theory of change
should include elements such as structural aspects of change (like
population shifts), process and mechanisms of social change, and
directions of change.
Hegelian: The classic Hege lian dialectic model of change is based
on the interaction of opposing forces. Starting from a point of
momentary stasis, Thesis countered by Antithesis first yields
conflict and it subsequently results in a new synthesis.
Marxist: Marxism presents a di alectical and materialistic concept of
history. Humankind’s history is a fundamental struggle between
social classes.munotes.in
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82Kuhnian: ThePhilosopher of Science Thomas Kuhn argues in ‘The
Structure of Scientific Revolutions’ with respect to the Copernican
Revo lution that people are unlikely to jettison an unworkable
paradigm, despite many indications that the paradigm is not
functioning properly, until a better paradigm can be presented.
Heraclitan: The Greek Philosopher Heraclitus used the metaphor
of a riv er to speak of change thus, “On those stepping into rivers
staying the same other and other waters flow”. What Heraclitus
seems to be suggesting here, later interpretations notwithstanding,
is that, in order for the river to remain the river, change must
constantly be taking place. Thus one may think of the Heraclitan
model as parallel to that of a living organism, which, in order to
remain alive must constantly be changing. A contemporary
application of this approach is shown in the social change theory
Seed-Scale which builds off of the Complexity Theory Subfield of
Emergence.
Daoist: The Chinese philosophical work Dao De Jing uses the
metaphor of water as the ideal agent of change. Water, although
soft and yielding, will eventually wear away stone. Change in this
model is to be natural, harmonious and steady, albeit imperceptible.
Check your progress -
Q-Write short note on Prominent theories of socia change
6.3 NATURE OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Social change refers to an alteration in the social order of a
society. Social change may include changes in nature, social
institutio ns, social behavior, or social relations. Social change may
refer to the notion of social progress or socio cultural evolution, the
philosophical idea that society moves forward by dialectical or
evolutionary means. It may refer to a paradigmatic change in the
socio -economic structure, for instance a shift away from feudalism
and towards capitalism. Accordingly it may also refer to social
revolution, such as the socialist revolution presented in Marxism, or
to other social movements, such as women’s suffrag eo rt h ec i v i l
rights movement.munotes.in
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83Social change may be driven by cultural, religious,
economic, scientific or technological forces. Social change refers to
an alteration in the social order of a society. Social change may
include change in nature, social in stitutions, social behavior, or
social relations. All these changes are interdependent. Change in
any of the either there would be a change in the other.
6.4 Factors of Change
1) Physical Environment:
Major changes in the physical environment are ve ry
compelling when they happen. The desert wastes of North Africa
were once green and well populated. Climates change, soil erodes
and lakes gradually turn into swamps and finally plains. A culture is
greatly affected by such changes although sometimes the yc o m e
about so slowly that they are largely unnoticed. Human misuse can
bring very rapid changes in physical environment which in turn
change the social and cultural life of a people. Deforestation brings
land erosion and reduces rainfall. Much of the was teland and
desert land of the world is a testament to human ignorance and
misuse. Environmental destruction has been at least a contributing
factor in the fall of most great civilization. Many human groups
throughout history have changed their physical env ironment
through migration. In the primitive societies whose members are
very directly dependent upon their physical environment migration
to a different environment brings major changes in the culture.
Civilization makes it easy to transport a culture and practice it in a
new and different environment.
2) Population changes:
A population change in itself is a social change and also
becomes casual factor further in social and cultural changes. When
a thinly settled frontier fills up with people the hosp itality pattern
fades away, secondary group relations multiply, institutional
structures grow more elaborate and many other changes follow. A
stable population may be able to resist change but a rapidly
growing population must migrate, improve its producti vity or starve.
Great historic migrations and conquests of the Huns, Vikings and
many others have arisen from the pressure of a growing population
upon limited resources. Migration encourages further change for it
brings a group into a new environment subj ects it to new social
contacts and confronts it with new problems. No major population
change leaves the culture unchanged.
3) Social Structure:
The structure of a society affects its rate of change in subtle
and not immediately apparent ways. A highly centralized
bureaucracy is very favorable to the promotion and diffusion ofmunotes.in
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84change although bureaucracy has sometimes been used in an
attempt to suppress change usually with no more than temporary
success. When a culture is very highly integrated so that each
element is rightly interwoven with all the others in a mutually
interdependent system change is difficult and costly. But when the
culture is less highly integrated so that work, play, family, religion
and other activities are less dependent upon one another change is
easier and more frequent. A tightly structured society wherein every
person's roles, duties, privileges and obligations are precisely and
rigidly defined is less given to changes than a more loosely
structured society wherein roles, lines of authority, privileges and
obligations are more open to individual rearrangement.
4) Attitudes and Values:
To people in developed nations and societies change is
normal. Children there are socialized to anticipate and appreciate
change. Societies dif fer greatly in their general attitude toward
change. People who revere the past and preoccupied with
traditions and rituals will change slowly and unwillingly. When a
culture has been relatively static for a long time the people are
likely to assume that i t should remain so indefinitely. They are
intensely and unconsciously ethnocentric; they assume that their
customs and techniques are correct and everlasting. A possible
change is unlikely even to be seriously considered. Any change in
such a society is li kely to be too gradual to be noticed.
A rapidly changing society has a different attitude toward
change and this attitude is both cause and effect of the changes
already taking place. Rapidly changing societies are aware of the
social change. They are s omewhat skeptical and critical of some
parts of their traditional culture and will consider and experiment
with innovations. Such attitudes powerfully stimulate the proposal
and acceptance of changes by individuals within the society.
Different groups with in a locality or a society may show differing
receptivity to change. Each and every changing society has its
liberals and its conservatives. Literate and educated people tend to
accept changes more readily than the illiterate and uneducated.
Attitudes and values affect both the amount and the direction of
social change. No society has been equally dynamic in all aspects
and its values determine in which area -art, music, warfare,
technology, philosophy or religion it will be innovative.
5) Cultural Factors
Cultural Factor influences the direction and character of
technological change Culture not only influences our social
relationships, it also influences the direction and character of
technological change. It is not only our beliefs and social institution s
must correspond to the changes in technology but our beliefs and
social institutions determine the use to which the technologicalmunotes.in
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85inventions will be put. The tools and techniques of technology are
indifferent to the use we make of them. For example the a tomic
energy can be used for the production of deadly war weapons or for
the production of economic goods that satisfy the basic needs of
man. The factories can produce the armaments or necessaries of
life. Steel and iron can be used for building warships or tractors. It
is a culture that decides the purpose to which a technical invention
must be put. Although technology has advanced geometrically in
the recent past, technology alone does not cause social change. It
does not by itself even cause further adv ances in technology.
Social values play a dominant role here. It is the complex
combination of technology and social values which produces
conditions that encourage further technological change. For
example the belief or the idea that human life must not b es a c r i f i c e d
for wants of medical treatment, contributed to the advancement in
medical technology. Thus cultural factors play a positive as well as
negative role in bringing about technological change.
Cultural factors such as habits, customs, tradition s,
conservatism, traditional values etc may resist the technological
inventions. On the other hand factors such as breakdown in the
unity of social values, the diversification of social institutions craving
for the new thoughts, values etc may contribute t o technological
inventions. Technological changes do not take place on their own.
They are engineered by men only. Technology is the creation of
man. Men are always moved by ideas, thoughts, values, beliefs,
morals and philosophies etc. These are the eleme nts of culture.
These sometimes decide or influence the direction in which
technology undergoes change. Men are becoming more and more
materialistic in their attitude. This change in the attitude and outlook
is reflected in the technological field. Thus in order to lead a
comfortable life and to minimize the manual labor man started
inventing new techniques, machines, instruments and devices.
6) Technological Factors:
The technological factors represent the conditions created
by man which have a profound influence on his life. In the attempt
to satisfy his wants, fulfill his needs and to make his life more
comfortable man creates civilization. Technology is a byproduct of
civilization .When the scientific knowledge is applied to the
problems in life it be comes technology. Technology is a systematic
knowledge which is put into practice that is to use tools and run
machines to serve human purpose. Science and technology go
together. In utilizing the products of technology man brings social
change. The social effects of technology are far -reaching.
According to Karl Marx even the formation of social relations and
mental conceptions and attitudes are dependent upon technology.
He has regarded technology as a sole explanation of social
change. W. F. Ogburn says technology changes society bymunotes.in
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86changing our environment to which we in turn adapt. These
changes are usually in the material environment and the
adjustment that we make with these changes often modifies
customs and social institutions. A single invention ma yh a v e
innumerable social effects. The loss of human freedom and the
large -scale destruction of human beings are due to the increasing
use of certain types of technology which has begun to threaten the
life support systems of the earth as a whole.
Check your progress
Q-Explain in detail the factors of social change.
6.5 OBSTACLES TO SOCIAL CHANGES IN INDIA
It is true that Indian society is changing and certain
directions of social change and development are clearly apparent,
but still we have not been able to achieve all those goals which we
wanted to achieve. There are many reasons behind this obstacles.
Some western scholars like Gunnar Mydral suggest that the main
cause of India’s economic weakness is not lack of technical skills
among the people but rather lack of initiative, of interest in
improving their status, and of respect for labour. Such views are
illogical, biased, and vigorously challenged by Indian and some
western scholars like Morris (1967), Milton Singer (1966, 1969),
T.N. Ma dan (1968), Yogendra Singh (1973), and S.C. Dube (1982).
Number of studies in rural India have shown keen desire on the
part of the villagers for improvement. They are willing to work hard,
change their harmful customs, eschew temptations, and rise above
human falli bilities. The obstacles to developmental efforts are not
human factors but political environment, social structures, and
economic handicaps.
1. Forces of Tradition
Change in a society is possible only by promoting attitudes
of acceptance towards new wa ys of doing things. Sticking to the
traditions & cultures and refusing to accept new ideas act as a
barrier to social change. The degree of cultural accumulation and
the amount of contact with other societies de termine the nature and
extent of social cha nge within a society.munotes.in
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87Isolated societies experience little change, whereas societies
which meet different people from different cultures experience rapid
social change. People refuse to intermingle easily & freely and
decline to share other peoples tradit ions, customs, knowledge,
technology and ideologies in a society which does not want to
change or accept change. This is because they believe that their
traditions are sacred and the merit of traditions are derived from
transmission from a sacred orientati on.
The possibility of invention and the introduction of new traits
from other cul tures is limited by the degree of cultural accumulation.
which depends upon the willingness to discard traditions which are
dysfunctional and non -utilitarian. What transp ires through contacts
with other cultures is diffusion, the source of most social change.
Traditional norms perform a stabilising function in the
society. Traditionally transmitted norms are accepted because they
fill the need to have rules in a given si tuation. The role which
traditional norms play in an economically and technically changing
society depends, on the place which tradition -oriented behaviour
holds in society. In traditional society, traditional values are given
importance because they have been transmitted from the past. But
in modern society, the conditions for change are welcomed be
cause they offer solutions to present problems.
2. The Values:
The role played by values in social change is a controversial
topic. Hegel felt that social change was a result of the unfolding of
ideas. Marx felt that values had no effect on long -term social
change. He felt that social change was exclusively a result of the
interplay of economic forces and was manifested in class struggle.
Most of the In dian sociologists agree that values influence both
individual and collective behaviour and thereby influencing social
processes. They also feel that values are the result of change and
should not always be considered as a primary factor in the social
change. The values of caste system like hierarchy, pollution,
endogamy, etc. were a great barrier in cha nging In dian society.
Geographical mobility and consequently social mobility
became possible only when technology and industrialisation were
accepted by common people. Hard work and social change was
also prevented by fatalism. Previously famines, floods,
earth quakes, poverty, unemployment were all considered to be the
result of God’s wrath. But now in industrial societies, people have
proved that some control over nature is possible and undesirable
situation is a challenge to man’s ingenuity.
Belief in the su periority of one’s culture (Ethnocentrism)
prevents people from accepting things / innovations from othermunotes.in
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88cultures. Ethnocentrism is so deeply embedded in the minds of
Indians that they easily fall victim to evaluating others in terms of
their own views ev en when they are sensitive to the philosophy of
cultural relativism. Pride and dignity prevent people from accepting
things / innovations suggested by others and discard them.
Caste System:
Caste system has been a great obstacle in achieving both
justice and pros perity. Kingsley Davis said that the conception of
hereditary occupation is exactly the opposite of the idea of open
opportunities, free competition, increasing specialization and indi
vidual mobility associated with dynamic industrial economy.
Caste an ds u b -caste membership is one of the basis of the
formation of factions. In rural areas factionalism is an important
factor in the failure of development projects. In many areas where
farmers belong to one caste, other castes do not wish to cooperate
as it will not be directly beneficial to them. In areas where farmers
are the ruling group, the development programme likewise fails to
gain widespread acceptance. Any project that apparently aids one
caste is opposed by all others castes who are either jealous of their
position in society or eager to defend their own position at everyone
else’s expense. Like caste factions, the intra -caste fac tions also act
as a barrier to social change.
Earlier, restrictions of caste system on interaction with
people of oth er castes did not permit mobility and industrialisation.
Today its use in politics has prevented rulers to function in
constructive ways. Wil liam Kapp has also pointed out that Hindu
culture and Hindu social organisations are determining factors in
India’ s low rate of develop ment. Milton Singer’s contention is that
there is no considerable evidence to indicate that Hindu culture and
caste system have had any dampening effect on India’s
development. He describes Kapp’s conclusions as largely
speculative ex trapolations derived from misunderstood scriptural
concepts.
Illiteracy, Ignorance and Fear:
Ignorance caused by illiteracy creates fear which resists
social change. Customary ways of doing things are preferred as
they have been tried but new is unknown so it has to be avoided.
Opinion about trial in villages or in simple societies is not so
rationalistic.
People become accustomed to change and hostility to
change tends to break down, if inventions are determined by the
existing material culture and a re frequent. But if material culture
inventions are not frequent, change may be rare and feared.
Educated people generate new ideas, desires, inventions, etc.,munotes.in
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89along with developing means to achieve them. While illiteracy
promotes hierarchy, education insi sts on the idea of equality and
rationality.
5. Population Explosion:
The nation’s potential for achieving the set goals is
handicapped by explosi onin our population. About 46,500 persons
are added to our existing population every day, or 17 million
persons every year, or 170 million people in a d ecade. The large
and increasing population thus checks our efforts to contain poverty
and bring about rapid development.
The Power Elite:
In our country government has been a principal agency of
social change. Government agencies have stimulated and dir ected
ag o o dp a r to fs o c i a lc h a n g e .T h ed e v e l o p m e n to fas o c i e t y
depends upon the type of political elite. So in government the
innovative and reformist functions depend upon the power elite.
Some are committed to community welfare, but many function on
the grounds of vested interests.
Check your progress
Q-What are the obstacles in the path of social change?
6.6 PEOPLE'S PARTICIPATION
In general participation refers to people’s involvement in
particular projects or programmes. Participatio nm e a n sa no v e r a l l
development strategy focusing on the central role that people
should play in all spheres of life. People’s participation has become
the central issue of current period and it means that people are
closely involved in the economic, social and cultural and political
processes that affect their lives. People have constant access to
decision making and power. Participation is an essential element of
human development. People in some cases may have complete
and direct control over these proces ses while in other cases the
control may be partial or indirect. Human development involves
widening peoples choice and greater participation enables them to
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90People can participate as individuals or gr oups. As an
individual in a democracy he may participate as a voter, political
activists, in the market as an entrepreneur or worker. They often
participate more and more effectively through group action as
members of a community organization or a trade un ion or a political
party. Since participation requires increased influence and control,
it also demands increased empowerment in economic, social and
political terms. All these 3 forms of participation are interlinked and
without one another they are incom plete. In economic terms it is
being able to engage freely in any economic activity. In social terms
it means being able to join fully in all forms of community life
without regard to religion, colour or sex or race. In political terms it
is the freedom to choose and change governance at every level
from top to bottom.
Greater participation has an important part to play there.
Participation from the human development perspective is both a
means and an end. Human development stresses the need to
invest in human capabilities and then ensure that those capabilities
are used for the benefit of all. It helps to maximize the use of
human capabilities and is a means of increasing levels of social
and economic development. Human development is also
concerned with personal fulfillment. So active participation which
allows people to realize their full potential and make their best
contribution to society is also an end in itself.
Many new windows of opportunities are opening. The rising
environmental threat is rem inding humanity of both its vulnerability
and its compulsion for common survival on a fragile planet.
Participation is a process and not a event. It will proceed at different
levels for different regions and countries and its forms and extent
may vary from one stage of development to another. The
implications of widespread participation are profoundly embracing
every aspect of development. Markets need to be reformed to offer
everyone access to the benefits they can bring. Governance needs
to be decentraliz ed to allow greater access to decision making.
Community organizations need to be allowed to exert growing
influence on national and international issues. We must realize the
fact that human development is the development of the people and
for the people.
Check your progress
Q-Participation is an essential element of human development -
explain.munotes.in
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916.7 PUBLIC OPINION
The word public is generally used to refer to a large group of
people or is sometimes used as synonym for crowd. The members
of the pu blic need not gather together in one place. They may be
dispersed and unknown to each other. According to Parker and
Anderson a public is that form of collectivity that includes a number
of dispersed and non -organized individuals who are faced with an
issue about which there may be differences of opinion.
According to Kimball Young, “An opinion is a belief
somewhat stronger or more intense than a mere notion or
impression but less stronger than positive knowledge based on
complete or adequate proof”. Opin ions are beliefs that one holds on
issues and imply careful thought and consideration. They are based
on some kind of information or evidence and not necessary that
opinions should always be correct.
According to John Dewey, “Public opinion is judgment t hat is
formed and entertained by those who constitute the public and is
about public affairs”.
Morris Ginsberg says, “By public opinion is meant the mass
of ideas and judgments operative in a community which are more
or less definitely formulated and h ave a certain stability and are felt
by the people who entertain or hold them to be social in the sense
that they are result of many minds acting in common”.
The welfare of society is an essential characteristic of public
opinion. Public opinion has a cu ltural base. The culture of a society
influences public opinion. Public opinion is but concerned with a
matter of public importance and not concerned with the interests of
ap a r t i c u l a rg r o u po fp e o p l e .P u b l i co p i n i o ni sf o rs o c i a lw e l f a r e .
Public opinion i s arrived at after careful thought. It is the tentative
deliberative adjustment of public to a situation. It is a cooperative
product and is the logical view of things in a society.
Check your progress
Q-Explain how public opinion is important for the development of a
society.munotes.in
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926.8 SUMMARY
Social change refers to an alteration in the social order of a
society. Social change may include changes in nature, social
institutions, social behaviours, or social relations. Social change
may refer to the notion of social progress or socio -cultural
evolution. Social change may be driven by cultural, religious,
economic, scientific or technological forces. Social change refers to
an alteration in the social order of a society. Social change may
include chan ges in nature, social institutions, social behaviours, or
social relations. As far as direction of social change in India is
concerned, there has been considerable cultural continuity along
with change based on imbibing modern values, practices and
institu tions. Traditional patterns have not been held static and
modern behaviour is commonly fitted into long -standing pattern of
action.
6.9 SELF -STUDY
1.Explain social change and the effects of it on the society?
2.Explain the factors of social change?
3.Discuss the obstacles coming in the path of social change?
4.Explain the need of people’s participation in social change?
5.Write short note on Public Opinion.
References:
Lalitha N. Dominant Publishers, New Delhi, 2004 -“Rural
Development in India”.
Sundaram Satya, 2nd rev, Himalaya Publishing House,
Mumbai, 2002 “Rural Development”.
Desai Vasant, Himalaya Pub lishing House, Mumbai, 2005 -
“Rural Development in India -Past Present and Future”.
G. Rajnikanth & R. R. Prasad, Discovery Publishing House,
New Delhi, 2006 -“Rural Development and Social Change”.
Bhargava Harsh & Kumar Deepak, published by The ICFAI
University press, Hyderabad, 2006 -“Rural Transformation -
Socio Economic Issues”.
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Modified Pattern of Question Paper for Semester End Assessment implemented
from 20 20-2021 For Rural Development courses at F.Y.B.A.
Duration of examination = 3 hours Total Marks = 100 (per semester)
All 5 questions carry 20 marks and are compulsory.
There will be internal choice in each Question.
Q1.Attempt any two questions ( module 1 )
20 marks
A
B
C
Q2.Attempt any two questions ( module 2)
20 marks
A
B
C
Q3.Attempt any two questions ( module 3 )
20 marks
A
B
C
Q4.Attempt any two questions ( module 4)
20 marks
A
B
C
Q5.Attempt any two questions ( module 1 ,2,3,4 . One question from each module )
20 marks
A
B
C
D
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